Table 1 The basic characteristics of included studies

Allen et al. (2010) [31]

66 ± 10

68 ± 7

24 (13/11)

24 (13/11)

7 ± 5

9 ± 6

NA

ON

24

3

NA

40–60

strength and balance training

usual care

70%

PDQ 39, score; Walking speed, m/s; FES-I, score

Allen et al. (2017) [36]

67.5 ± 7.3

68.5 ± 8.5

19 (12/7)

19 (11/8)

NA

NA

ON

12

3

NA

NA

An interactive videogame for arm and hand exercise

no activity intervention

NA

PDQ 39, score; Nine Hole Peg Board test, s

Ashburn et al. (2007) [27]

72.7 ± 9.6

71.6 ± 8.8

70 (38/32)

72 (48/24)

7.7 ± 5.8

9.0 ± 5.8

3.1 ± 0.8

3.0 ± 0.7

ON

24

NA

60

strength, aerobic, balance and gait training

usual care

94%

BBS, score

Caglar et al. (2005) [28]

67.4 ± 5.04

64.3 ± 12.3

15 (11/4)

15 (10/5)

5.5 ± 2.7

5.2 ± 2.7

2.1 ± 0.50

2.1 ± 0.57

ON

8

7

NA

60

aerobic exercise, resistance training, balance training

routine activities

NA

Nine Hole Peg Board test, s

Canning et al. (2012) [14]

60.7 ± 5.9

62.9 ± 9.9

10 (5/5)

10 (6/4)

6.1 ± 4.0

5.2 ± 4.1

I–II

ON

6

4

50–80% 6 MWT speed

30–40

treadmill training

no activity intervention

78%

UPDRS-III, score; PDQ 39, score; 10 m walking test, m/s;

Collett et al. (2017) [15]

66 ± 9

67 ± 7

54 (31/23)

51 (30/21)

4.8 ± 4.1

5.3 ± 4.1

NA

ON

24

2

55–85% HRmax

60

resistance training, and aerobic exercise

handwriting

97%

MDS-UPDRS-III, score; Nine Hole Peg Board test, s

Goodwin et al. (2011) [29]

72.0 ± 8.6

70.1 ± 8.3

64 (39/25)

66 (35/31)

9.1 ± 6.4

8.2 ± 6.4

2.6 ± 0.9

2.4 ± 0.9

OFF

10

2

NA

60

resistance training, and balance training

usual care

70%

BBS, score; FES-I, score

Johansson et al. (2022) [9]

58.9 ± 8.9

59.8 ± 10.1

26 (20/6)

31 (17/14)

3.7 ± 3.2

3.96 ± 2.7

NA

OFF

24

3

50–80% HRR

30–45

aerobic exercise based on cycling

relaxation exercises

NA

MDS-UPDRS-III, score;

Khalil et al. (2017) [23]

58.4 ± 13.5

60.7 ± 15.4

16 (12/4)

14 (7/7)

8.0 ± 6.4

7.5 ± 4.0

2.4 ± 0.7

2.2 ± 0.8

ON

8

3

RPE 3–4

45

aerobic exercise

usual care

77%

MDS-UPDRS-III, score; 10 m walking test, m/s; FES-I, score

Khobkhun et al. (2021) [32]

66.5 ± 4.2

67.0 ± 4.4

10 (NA)

10 (NA)

6.4 ± 3.5

6.6 ± 3.9

2.3 ± 0.5

2.3 ± 0.5

ON

10

7

NA

60

strength, balance, and gait exercise

maintain daily activities

NA

MDS-UPDRS-III, score

Morris et al. (2017) [30]

71 ± 8

71 ± 10

67 (45/22)

66 (35/31)

NA

2.3 ± 0.7

2.4 ± 0.7

ON

6

2

NA

60

resistance training, balance training, and aerobic training

health education

92.50%

UPDRS-III, score; PDQ 39, score

Nieuwboer et al. (2014)

67.5 ± 7.8

69 ± 7.8

76 (48/28)

77 (40/37)

7 ± 5.2

8 ± 5.9

2.5 ± 0.4

3 ± 0.4

ON

3

3

NA

30

balance and gait training

no activity intervention

NA

PDQ 39, score; 10 m walking test, m/s; FES-I, score

Seymour et al. (2019) [26]

71 ± 7.7

73 ± 7.7

238 (147/91)

236 (119/117)

8 ± 6.6

8 ± 5.8

2.6 ± 0.4

2.7 ± 0.5

ON

24

3

NA

60

balance and gait training

health education

91%

PDQ 39, score; FES-I, score

Song et al. (2017)

68 ± 7

65 ± 7

31 (15/16)

29 (9/20)

7 ± 4

9 ± 6

NA

ON

12

3

NA

15

step training game

no activity intervention

86%

Gait adaptability test, cm/s; FES-I, score

Stack et al. (2011)^a

75 ± 5.9

74 ± 5.9

24 (17/7)

23 (18/5)

8 ± 5.2

7 ± 5.9

3.2 ± 0.6

3 ± 0.7

ON

4

NA

NA

strength and gait exercise

usual care

74%

PDQ 39

Tickle-Degnen et al. (2010) [34]

EXP1: 65.8 ± 8.3

EXP2: 67.6 ± 10.3

65.6 ± 8.3

EXP1: 33 (23/10)

EXP2: 37 (27/10)

37 (25/12)

EXP1: 7.0 ± 5.3

EXP2: 7.2 ± 6.0

7.0 ± 5.8

EXP1: 2.3 ± 0.5

EXP2: 2.4 ± 0.6

2.3 ± 0.4

ON

6

2

NA

60

EXP1: gait training, strength, stretch

EXP2: gait training, strength, stretch, health education

no activity intervention

NA

PDQ 39, score

van der Kolk et al. (2018)^a [24]

56.7 ± 5.3

58.4 ± 6.3

22 (NA)

15 (NA)

NA

2.0 ± 0.4

2.1 ± 0.3

ON

24

3

NA

30

aerobic exercise

no activity intervention

92%

UPDRS-III, score; PDQ 39, score; Nine Hole Peg Board test, s

van der Kolk et al. (2019)^a [11]

59.3 ± 8.3

59.4 ± 9.3

65 (42/23)

65 (38/27)

15.1 ± 4.0

16.1 ± 4.5

1.9 ± 0.3

2.0 ± 0.2

ON/OFF

24

3

76.4% HRmax

30–45

aerobic exercise

stretch and relaxation

65%

MDS-UPDRS-III, score (ON/OFF); PDQ 39, score; Nine Hole Peg Board test, s

Vasconcellos et al. (2021)^a

66.0 ± 6.3

65.4 ± 10.1

14 (10/4)

14 (8/6)

6.1 ± 4.4

6.0 ± 4.7

2.7 ± 0.7

2.7 ± 0.6

ON

3

3

NA

60

balance and gait training

stretch

67%

Gait speed, m/s

Xiao et al. (2015)

68.2 ± 2.3

66.5 ± 2.1

48 (33/15)

48 (34/14)

5.5 ± 3.6

6.2 ± 2.6

2.2 ± 0.2

2.1 ± 0.2

OFF

24

4

43–49% HRmax

45

Qigong

no activity intervention

NA

UPDRS-III, score; Gait speed, m/s; BBS, score