Table 1 Main Characteristics of Studies Included in the Systematic Review and Meta Analyses

Zhao et al., 2022 Chinese [19]

511

53.62

Self-neglect

ESNA-24 item (ranged from 0 to 48)

Mean (SD) 13.65 ± 10.65

Social Support Revalued Scale

Per a unit increase

β = − 0.15 (− 0.27, − 0.09)

Xu et al., 2022 China [41]

452

35.40

Self-neglect

AGSS (ranged from 0 to 24 and > =4 is defined as having self-neglect abuse)

30.30

SSRS

Per a unit increase

OR = 0.96 (0.91, 1.01)

Okojie et al., 2022 Nigeria [42]

913

–

Elder abuse Rural

Researcher-made questionnaire

14.70

–

Poor vs. adequate

OR = 3.55 (1.64, 7.69)

Elder abuse urban

13.30

Poor vs. adequate

OR = 2.25 (1.00, 5.03)

Psychological abuse (rural)

86.20

–

Psychological abuse (urban)

84.20

–

Sexual abuse (rural)

3.40

–

Sexual abuse (urban)

9.20

–

Santos et al., 2022 Brazil [43]

159

76.73

Violence

H-S/EAST 15 items (A score of three or more points indicates increased risk for violence)

72.10

MOS-SSS Emotional/informational support

Per a unit increase

OR = 0.95 (0.91, 0.98)

Dias et al., 2022 Portugal [44]

677

63.22

Elder abuse

CTS and UK survey of elder abuse/ neglect 52 items First: frequency) never, once, twice, 3–5, 6–10, 11–20 or more than 20 times during the past year) Second: reported any abuse = Abuse

23.90

MSPSS

Low vs. high

OR = 3.96 (1.22, 12.83)

Psychological abuse

11 items

19.90

–

Physical abuse

17 items

2.50

–

Financial abuse

9 items

5.80

–

Sexual abuse

8 items

1.90

–

Simmons et al., 2021 Sweden [45]

607

44.48

One form of victimization

NorAQ (Yes or no)

7.74

One item from the annual Swedish national public health survey

No vs. yes

OR = 2.15 (0.94, 4.93)

Any violence

26.35

–

Emotional violence

12.52

–

Physical violence

19.60

–

Sexual violence

7.74

–

Oetzel et al., 2021 New Zealand [20]

128

75.78

Elder Abuse

Validated scale from previous empirical research 4 items (Ranged from 0 to 16)

Mean (SD) 0.15 ± 0.26

perceived and desired social support

Per a unit increase

Correlation = − 0.18

Sooryanarayana et al., 2020 Malaysia [46]

3466

42.46

Elder abuse

questions adapted from the National Irish Prevalence Survey on Elder Abuse 30 items (Yes or no)

9.00

11-item Duke’s Social Support Index

Poor vs. good

OR = 5.03 (2.25, 11.21)

Neglect abuse

4 items ≥10 occurrences < 10 (if it was perceived as being severe by the older person).

7.50

–

Financial abuse

8 items

0.80

–

Psychological abuse

7 items

0.70

Physical abuse

8 items

0.20

–

Sexual abuse

3 items

0.10

–

Koga et al., 2020 Japan [47]

26,229

53.93

Multiple abuse

Researcher-made questionnaire 3 items

12.30

Researcher-made questionnaire (Emotional support)

Yes vs. no

OR = 0.89 (0.75, 1.06)

Psychological abuse

1 item: ranging from 1 (never), 2 (once or twice), 3 (occasionally), or 4 (frequently)

11.11

Yes vs. no

OR = 0.86 (0.72, 1.03)

Financial abuse

1 item: (Yes or no)

1.45

Yes vs. no

OR = 0.92 (0.61, 1.39)

Physical abuse

1 item: ranging from 1 (never), 2 (once or twice), 3 (occasionally), or 4 (frequently)

1.26

Yes vs. no

OR = 1.14 (0.69, 1.89)

Zheng et al., 2019 USA [48]

3157

–

Elder abuse

H-S/EAST 10-item (Yes or no)

15.01

scale, adapted from the Health and Retirement Study

Negative vs. positive

OR = 1.51 (1.41, 1.61)

Park et al., 2018 South Korea [49]

10,674

56.80

Emotional abuse

1-item (Yes or no)

9.40

1-item (none, 1–2, 3–5, or more than 6 persons)

No vs. > 6 people

OR = 1.71 (1.37, 2.12)

Williams et al., 2017 USA [39]

5776

60.20

Multiple abuse

A series of questions elder abuse in survey form validated 25-item (yes or no)

1.70

modified five-item version of the MOS-SSS

Low vs. high

OR = 1.64(1.00, 2.67)

Emotional abuse

4-item

27.10

–

Physical abuse

3-item

6.90

–

Sexual abuse

3-item

3.40

–

Neglect

6-item

33.50

–

Financial abuse

9-item

34.50

–

Vilar-Compte et al., 2017 USA [50]

526

100.00

Elder abuse

GMS (22-item) (yes or no)

33.40

OSS-3 intermediate and strong social support, a dichotomous variable

Strong vs. intermediate

OR = 0.57 (0.34, 0.94)

Physical abuse

5-item

3.80

–

Psychological abuse

6-item

30.60

–

Neglect

4-item

5.10

–

Financial abuse

5-item

8.40

–

Sexual abuse

2-item

1.10

–

Liu et al., 2017 USA [21]

386

70.90

Financial abuse

OAFEM 79 FE statements (ranged from 0 to 158) Not event happened = score 0 Suspected of occurrence = score 1 Event happened = score 2

200

ISEL (12-item short version)

Per a unit increase

β = −.022

Nisha et al., 2016 India [51]

200

55.50

Elder abuse

EAST and two items on neglect and two additional items on financial abuse (Present or absent)

16.00

–

Absent vs. present

OR = 6.1 (1.8, 20.2)

Verbal abuse

12.50

–

Neglect

11.00

–

Financial abuse

8.50

–

Physical abuse

1.50

–

Melchiorre et al., 2016 Europe [37]

4467

57.30

Multiple abuse

Violence based on the UK study on elder abuse and CTS ⁽52 items⁾ (Yes or no)

22.10

MSPSS

Per a unit increase

OR = 0.98 (0.97, 0.99)

Physical abuse

17 items

2.70

–

Sexual abuse

8 items

0.70

–

Financial abuse

9 items

3.80

–

Psychological abuse

11 items

19.40

–

Injury

7 items

0.70

–

Beach et al., 2016 USA [52]

903

73.30

Financial abuse

adapted from work by Quinn and Tomita 4 items (Yes or no)

3.50

ISEL

Per a unit increase

OR = 0.94 (0.88, 0.99)

Chokkanathan et al., 2015 India [35]

897

–

Elder abuse

CTS (15 items) (Yes or no)

21.00

modified version of the Duke Social Support and Stress Scale MOS-SSS

Per a unit increase

OR = 0.84 (0.75, 0.95)

Psychological abuse

3 items

19.20

Financial abuse

3 items

12.70

Neglect

2 items

12.40

Physical abuse

6 items

12.30

other

1 item

–

Guedes et al., 2015 Canada, Albania, Colombia and Brazil [53]

1995

52.13

Psychological abuse by their family

HITS (4 items) (Ranged from 4 to 20)

9.67

measured social support using six questions

Low vs. high

OR = 1.29 (0.77, 2.17)

James et al., 2013 USA [22]

639

76.80

Scams

Susceptibility to Scams Scale (5 items) (ranged from 5 to 35)

Mean (SD) 2.88 ± 0.70

MSPSS Social support

Per a unit increase

β = −0.07 (0.67, −0.81)

LEE et al., 2014 South Korea [23]

1023

82.80

Self-neglect

Subscale (SSEA) (5 items) (ranged from 5 to 35)

22.80

LSNS-6

Per a unit increase

β = −.155

Adamczyk et al., 2013 Poland [54]

518

61.50

Any type of Violence (Women)

Researcher-made questionnaire 4 items (Yes or no)

63.40

Social Support List 12 – Interactions Scale: (Higher social support >scores median scale low social support <= scores median scale)

Low vs. higher

OR = 1.93 (0.98, 3.82)

Any type of Violence (Men)

4 items (Yes or no)

36.60

Low vs. higher

OR = 1.35 (0.46, 3.93)

Psychological Violence (Men)

1 item (Yes or no)

30.20

Low vs. higher

OR = 0.71 (0.15, 3.62)

Psychological Violence (Women)

1 item (Yes or no)

69.80

Low vs. higher

OR = 2.64 (0.99, 7.09)

neglect (Men)

1 item (Yes or no)

38.10

Low vs. higher

OR = 0.51 (0.13, 1.96)

Neglect (Women)

1 item (Yes or no)

61.90

Low vs. higher

OR = 2.51 (1.02, 6.15)

Financial violence (Men)

1 item (Yes or no)

32.00

High social limitations

OR = 0.20 (0.03, 1.40)

Financial violence (Women)

1 item (Yes or no)

68.00

High social limitations

OR = 0.38 (0.12, 1.17)

Physical violence (Women)

1 item (Yes or no)

69.20

–

Physical violence (MEN)

1 item (Yes or no)

30.80

–

Macassa et al., 2013 Europe [38]

4467

57.29

Overall psychological abuse (Female)

UK study of abuse/neglect of older people and CTS (11 item) (Minor or severe)

19.40

MSPSS

per a unit increase

OR = 0.98 (0.98, 0.99)

psychological abuse (Male)

20.30

–

Dong et al., 2013 USA [55]

404

34.65

Elder abuse (Urban)

VASS Hwalek & Sengstock (Yes or no)

31.22

SSI

Per a unit increase Low Social support

OR = 1.11 (1.04, 1.19)

Elder abuse (Rural)

44.44

Low Social support

OR = 1.19 (1.08, 1.31)

Yan et al., 2012 USA [56]

937

42.37

Physical abuse

CTS (violence) (Total or Severe)

2.50

social support scale from the FNS

Low Social support

OR = 0.14 (0.02, 0.76)

Sexual abuse

1.20

Low Social support

OR = 0.29 (0.03, 2.45)

Psychological abuse

36.10

Low Social support

OR = 1.16 (0.77, 1.76)

Cevirme et al., 2012 Turkey [57]

452

46.00

Elder abuse

Researcher-made questionnaire 5 items (Yes or no)

28.50

MSPSS

Per a unit increase

OR = 0.76 (0.70, 0.82)

Emotional abuse

57.40

Physical abuse

14.70

Economic abuse

27.90

Naughton et al., 2011 Ireland [58]

2021

55.00

Multiple abuse

financial abuse and neglect (UK and NY prevalence studies) and CTS 29 items

2.20

Oslo-3

Poor vs. strong

OR = 3.11 (1.29, 7.46)

Financial abuse

8 items (Yes or no)

1.30

Psychological abuse

7 items (ranged from 10 > = and /or if < 10)

1.20

Physical abuse

9 items (Yes or no)

0.50

Sexual abuse

2 items (Yes or no)

0.05

Neglect

3 items (Yes or no)

0.30

Wu et al., 2011 China [59]

2000

–

Multiple abuse

VASS

36.20

Researcher-made questionnaire of social support

practical support from family

OR = 1.28 (1.01, 1.63)

Physical abuse

4.90

Emotional abuse

27.30

Neglect

15.80

Financial Exploitation

2.00

Amstadter et al., 2011 USA [60]

902

59.90

Emotional abuse

Researcher-made questionnaire on elder abuse 4 items (Yes or no)

5.10

MOS-SSS

low vs. high

OR = 3.51 (1.63, 7.53)

Physical abuse

3 items

1.80

low vs. high

OR = 8.14 (0.8, 83.26)

Neglect

6 items

5.40

low vs. high

OR = 6.74 (1.54, 29.62)

Financial abuse

6 items

6.60

low vs. high

OR = 1.77(0.71, 4.42)

Sexual abuse

2 items

0.30

–

Acierno et al., 2010 USA [40]

5777

60.20

Emotional abuse

Researcher-made questionnaire on elder abuse 4 items (Yes or no)

4.60

MOS-SSS

Low vs. High

OR = 3.17 (2.14, 4.69)

Physical abuse

3 items

1.60

low vs. high

OR = 2.95 (1.19, 7.30)

Sexual abuse

3 items

0.60

low vs. high

OR = 5.68 (1.30, 2.44)

Neglect

6items

5.10

low vs. high

OR = 4.14 (2.34, 7.35)

Financial abuse by family (Use of social services)

10 items

5.20

low vs. high

OR = 0.75 (0.57, 0.98)

Choi et al., 2008 USA [24]

370

–

Self-neglect

PSA (reports of alleged abuse, neglect, and self-neglect a year.) 7 items

22.20

(number of family members and friends who may be able to help)

No. of social support

β = 0.35 (0.70, 0.002)

Financial abuse

5 items

38.40

No. of social support

β = 0.72 (1.29, 0.15)

Multiple abuse

30 items

51.90

–

Physical abuse

1 item

10.50

–

psychological abuse

1 item

10.50

–

Sexual abuse

1 item

1.00

–

Self-endangering behaviors

4 items

22.70

–

Environmental hazards

5 items

27.30

–

Inability to manage finances

6 items

62.20

–

Chokkanathan et al., 2005 India [36]

400

49.50

Elder abuse

Two subscales on verbal and physical abuse taken from (CTS) and based on extant literature (two items on neglect and two items on financial abuse) (total: 18 items)

14.00

MOS-SSS

Per a unit increase

OR = 1.07 (1.04, 1.09)

verbal abuse

8 items: frequency (at least 10 times)

10.80

financial abuse

2 items: (0 times, 1–2 times, 3–5 times, >  5 times)

5.00

physical abuse

6 items: (0 times, 1–2 times, 3–5 times, >  5 times)

4.30

neglect

2 items: frequency (at least 10 times)

4.30