Table 4 Critical appraisal of all included studies using design specific JBI critical appraisal tools

(Ajrouch 2008)

[34]

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Unsure

(Bai et al. 2021)

[35]

Yes

Yes

Unsure

Yes

Yes

Yes

Unsure

Yes

(Beech and Murray 2013)

[39]

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

No

Yes

No

(Beer et al. 2016)^b

[40]

No

No

Yes

Yes

No

No

Yes

No

(Beere et al. 2019)

[41]

Yes

No

Yes

Yes

No

No

Yes

No

(Burholt et al. 2018)^a

[43]

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

(Cao et al. 2020)^a

[45]

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

(Dahlberg et al. 2022)^a

[48]

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

(De Jong Gierveld et al. 2015)^a

[49]

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

(De Koning et al. 2017)^a

[50]

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

(Diaz et al. 2019)

[51]

No

Yes

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

(Domenech-Abella et al. 2020)^a

[52]

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

(Gibney et al. 2019)^a

[54]

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

(Glass 2020)

[55]

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

No

Yes

Yes

(Haslam et al. 2022)^a

[57]

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

(Henning‐Smith et al. 2019)

[58]

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

Unsure

(Hodgkin et al. 2018)^a

[59]

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

(Klok et al. 2017)^a

[62]

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

(Lam and Wang 2022)^a

[64]

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

(Lam 2022)

[63]

Yes

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Unsure

(Lane et al. 2020)^a

[65]

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

(Lee 2022)^a

[66]

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

(Moorer and Suurmeijer 2001)

[68]

Yes

Yes

Yes

Unsure

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

(Park et al. 2021)

[71]

Yes

Yes

Unsure

Yes

Yes

Yes

Unsure

Yes

(Rezaeipandari et al. 2020)^a

[74]

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

(Stephens and Phillips 2022)^a

[80]

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

(Timmermans et al. 2021)^a

[81]

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

(Woolham et al. 2013)

[83]

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

No

Yes

No

(Zhang and Lu 2022)^a

[85]

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Cohort

Checklist for cohort studies

Groups similar and recruited from the same population

Exposures measured similarly to assign groups

Exposure measured in a valid and reliable way

Confounding factors identified

Strategies to deal with confounding factors stated

Participants free of the outcome at the start of the study

Outcomes measured in a valid and reliable way

Adequate follow up time for outcome to occur

Follow up complete

Strategies to address incomplete follow up used

Appropriate statistical analysis used

(Beller and Wagner 2020)

[42]

N/A

N/A

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

(Garner et al. 2022)

[53]

N/A

N/A

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

Yes

No

No

Yes

(Settels 2021)

[78]

N/A

N/A

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

(Yang and Moorman 2021)

[84]

N/A

N/A

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

N/A

Yes

Intervention Studies

Pre-post test

Source

Clear what is the cause’ and what is the ‘effect’

Participants included in any comparisons similar

Participants included in any comparisons receiving similar treatment/care

Inclusion of control group

Multiple measurements of the outcome both pre and post the intervention/exposure

Follow up complete

Outcomes of participants included in any comparisons measured in the same way

Outcomes measured in a reliable way

Appropriate statistical analysis used

(Bartlett et al. 2013)^b

[36]

Yes

Yes

Unsure

No

No

Yes

Yes

No

No

(Bartsch and Rodgers 2009)

[37]

Yes

No

Yes

No

No

Yes

Yes

Unsure

Yes

(Bartsch et al. 2013)

[38]

Yes

No

Yes

No

No

Yes

Yes

Unsure

Yes

(Butler 2006)^b

[44]

No

Yes

No

No

No

No

Yes

Unsure

No

(Carandang et al. 2020)

[46]

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

(Coll‐Planas et al. 2017)

[47]

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

No

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

(Gonyea and Burnes 2013)

[56]

No

Yes

Yes

No

No

Yes

Yes

Unsure

Yes

(Honigh-De Vlaming et al. 2013)

[60]

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

(Merchant et al. 2021)

[67]

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

No

Yes

Yes

Unsure

Yes

(Mulligan and Bennett 1977)

[69]

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

(Mullins et al. 2020)

[70]

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

No

Unsure

Yes

Yes

Yes

(Passmore et al. 2007)

[72]

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

(Reinhard et al. 2018)

[73]

Yes

No

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

(Roberts et al. 2020)

[75]

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

(Sandu et al. 2021) ^b

[77]

Yes

Yes

No

No

No

No

Yes

No

Yes

(Steinman et al. 2021)

[79]

No

Yes

Yes

No

No

Yes

Yes

Unsure

Yes

(Toseland et al. 1979)

[82]

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Randomised control trials

Checklist for randomised controlled trials

True randomisation used for assignment of participants

Allocation to treatment groups concealed

Treatment groups similar at the baseline

Were participants blind to treatment assignment

Those delivering treatment blind to treatment assignment

Were outcomes assessors blind to treatment assignment?

Treatment groups treated identically other than the intervention

Follow up complete

Participants analysed in the groups to which they were randomised

Outcomes measured in the same way for treatment groups

Outcomes measured in a reliable way

Appropriate statistical analysis used

Appropriate trial design used

(Jones et al. 2019)

[61]

Yes

No

Yes

Yes

No

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

(Saito et al. 2012)

[76]

Yes

No

Yes

No

No

No

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes