Table 2 Summary of charted data
Source | Topic focus | Sample | Subjective Isolation Measure and Tool | Objective Isolation Measure and Tool | Data Collection Method | Community Factors Being Investigated | Societal Factors Being Investigated | Co-variates adjusted for | Recommendations |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Observational | |||||||||
Cross Sectional | |||||||||
(Ajrouch, 2008) [34] | Acculturation to explain differences in social isolation and loneliness | Country: United States of America Mean age: 69 % Female: 55.5 Sample size: 101 | Loneliness, Single Question 'In the last two weeks, how often—if at all—did you feel lonely?' | Social Isolation, Hierarchical mapping technique- participants to rate level of relationships | Face-to-Face Interview Surveys | NS | Migration, Cultural Practices | Age, Education, Ethnicity, Gender, Marital Status, Physical Limitations | Investigate how immigrant status influences social isolation and loneliness over the life course |
(Bai et al. 2021) [35] | Social capital and loneliness and the effect of social capital, demographic factors and health-related factors on loneliness | Country: China Mean age: 71.2 Sample size: 1810 | Loneliness, Single Question 'Do you have the feeling of loneliness?' | NS | Face-to-Face Interview Surveys | Social Cohesion | NS | Age, Chronic Condition, Education, Gender, Marital Status, Living Arrangement, Physical Limitations | Longitudinal data or a randomised control trial |
(Beech & Murray, 2013) [39] | Social engagement and its link with community attachment | Country: UK Mean age: 71.6 % Female: 76.9 Sample size: 65 | Loneliness, DJG-LS-11 | NS | Self-Complete Survey | NS | Neighbourhood Belonging | Physical Limitations, Religion | Need novel approaches to investigating loneliness |
(Beer et al. 2016) [40] | Regional variations and incidence of social isolation | Country: Australia Sample size: 1682 | Loneliness, Single Question 'During the past four weeks I felt isolated from other people.' | Social Isolation, Friendship Scale | Self-Complete Survey | Rurality | NS | Physical Limitations, Religion | No future research recommendations |
(Beere et al. 2019) [41] | Socio-spatial trends for loneliness | Country: New Zealand/ Aotearoa Sample size: 52,973 | Loneliness, Single Question | NS | Face-to-Face Interview Surveys | Rurality | NS | Physical Limitations, Religion | Need data at a more granular level |
(Burholt et al. 2018) [43] | Social networks that are most vulnerable to loneliness | Country: UK % Female: 50 Sample size: 815 | Loneliness, DJG-LS-6 | NS | Face-to-Face Interview Surveys | NS | Cultural Practices | Age, Ethnicity, Gender, Marital Status, Self-Rated Health | More evidence about indigenous and migrant populations from collectivist cultures |
(Cao et al. 2020) [45] | Access to outdoor space and buildings and social or community events, and perceived disconnection | Country: United States of America Mean age: 65.01 % Female: 63.5 Sample size: 346 | Subjective Isolation, Single Question 'I frequently feel disconnected from my community.' | NS | Self-Complete Survey | Public Third-Places | NS | Age, Gender, Home accessibility, Income, Living Arrangement, Self-Rated Health | More research about older peoples existing community knowledge before designing interventions |
(Dahlberg et al. 2022) [48] | Associations between indicators of social exclusion and loneliness | Country: Denmark, Finland, Norway, and Sweden Sample size: 7755 | Loneliness, Single Question ‘how much of the time during the past week have you felt lonely’ | NS | Face-to-Face Interview Surveys | Neighbourhood Safety | Political Participation | Age, Education, Gender, Self-Rated Health, Physical Limitations | Longitudinal data and more prospective designs to provide evidence for causal links |
(De Jong Gierveld et al. 2015) [49] | Loneliness of immigrants compared to native-born people in an ecological model | Country: Canada Sample size: 3692 | Loneliness, DJG-LS-6 | NS | Face-to-Face Interview Surveys | Social Cohesion | Cultural Practices | Gender, Marital Status, Self-Rated Health | No future research recommendations |
(De Koning et al., 2017) [50] | Predictors of loneliness and social isolation | Country: UK Mean age: 71.5 % Female: 57.9 Sample size: 884 | Loneliness, Single Question 'I experience a general sense of loneliness' | Social Isolation,3 Item Scale | Face-to-Face Interview Surveys | Transport Access | NS | Age, Gender | No future research recommendations |
(Diaz et al. 2019) [51] | Factors beyond immigration of loneliness among ethnic minority elders | Country: Canada % Female: 67.3 Sample size: 123 | Loneliness, UCLA-LS-21 | Social Network, LSNS-R-12 | Self-Complete Survey | NS | Cultural Practices | Education, Employment, English Proficiency, Income | Investigate the relationship between unfulfilled expectations of social network and feelings of loneliness among ethnic older people |
(Domenech-Abella et al. 2020) [52] | The role of built environment in loneliness and depression | Country: Finland, Poland, Spain % Female: 54.9 Sample size: 5912 | Loneliness, UCLA-LS-3 | NS | Face-to-Face Interview Surveys | Walkability, Public Third-Places | NS | Chronic Condition, Education, Gender, Marital Status | Longitudinal data to provide evidence for causality |
(Gibney et al. 2019) [54] | Age-friendliness of local environments and self-reported loneliness | Country: Ireland % Female: 52.7 Sample size: 10,540 | Loneliness, UCLA-LS-5 | NS | Face-to-Face Interview Surveys | Accessible Services, Walkability, Transport Access | Perceptions Of Ageism | Age, Education, Gender, Income, Marital Status, Living Arrangement, Self-Rated Health | Longitudinal data for the relationship between loneliness and environment |
(Glass, 2020) [55] | The intersection of loneliness and sense of community | Country: United States of America Mean age: 72 % Female: 72 Sample size: 86 | Loneliness, UCLA-LS-3 | NS | Self-Complete Survey | Neighbourhood Satisfaction | Neighbourhood Belonging | Physical Limitations, Religion | Need more research on the intersection of cohousing, age, gender, and loneliness |
(Haslam et al. 2022) [57] | Social group memberships and the wellbeing of older immigrants | Country: Australia Mean age: 80.33 % Female: 82.35 Sample size: 102 | Loneliness, UCLA-LS-3 | NS | Self-Complete Survey | NS | Cultural Practices | Age, English Proficiency, Religion | Evidence for the efficacy of social groups in reducing immigrant loneliness across different groups and ages |
(Henning‐Smith et al. 2019) [58] | Rurality and social isolation | Country: United States of America Mean age: 71 % Female: 50 Sample size: 2439 | Loneliness, Loneliness Scale (3 item not validated) | NS | Face-to-Face Interview Surveys | Rurality | Migration | Age, Education, Ethnicity, Religion | Research how to facilitate connections between older adults in urban areas |
(Hodgkin et al. 2018) [59] | Ecological model of wellness | Country: Australia Mean age: 75.92 % Female: 64.9 Sample size: 266 | Loneliness, DJG-LS-6 | Social Network, Single Question 'number of friends and family members' | Telephone Survey Interview | Accessible Services, Neighbourhood Satisfaction, Neighbourhood Safety | NS | Age, Gender, Income, Marital Status, Physical Limitations, Mental Health | Need for more research measuring wellness in older people |
(Klok et al. 2017) [62] | Transnational sense of belonging as a dimension of belonging | Country: Netherlands Mean age: 60.9 Sample size: 461 | Loneliness, DJG-LS-11 | NS | Face-to-Face Interview Surveys | NS | Migration, Cultural Practices | Age, Education, Employment, Ethnicity, Gender, Marital Status, Self-Rated Health, Physical Limitations | Need for more research understanding how transnational belonging relates to wellness in older migrants |
(Lam & Wang, 2022) [64] | Characteristics of the built environment and loneliness | Country: Australia Mean age: 62.9 % Female: 53 Sample size: 298 | Loneliness, Single Question 'I often feel very lonely.' | NS | Face-to-Face Interview Surveys | Neighbourhood Disadvantage, Open Green Spaces, Neighbourhood Density | Housing Diversity | Education, Ethnicity, Gender, Income, Marital Status, Self-Rated Health, Children | Need for more research using the built environment as a level for increasing older people's connections |
(Lam, 2022) [63] | Ethnic–migrant backgrounds and loneliness dependent on neighbourhood | Country: Australia Sample size: 22,183 | Loneliness, Single Question 'I often feel very lonely.' | NS | Self-Complete Survey | Neighbourhood Density, Neighbourhood Satisfaction, Neighbourhood Safety | Migration | Age, Education, Gender, Income, Marital Status, Self-Rated Health | Research directly capturing social experiences and neighbourhood safety satisfaction for migrants from non-English speaking countries |
(Lane et al. 2020) [65] | Neighbourhood destinations for socializing and social health | Country: Singapore Mean age: 67.98 % Female: 53.21 Sample size: 981 | NS | Social Health, LSNS-6 | Face-to-Face Interview Surveys | Neighbourhood Density, Walkability, Public Third-Places | NS | Age, Chronic Condition, Education, Ethnicity, Gender, Marital Status, Living Arrangement | Research types of activities that happen in third places as possible explanations for connections |
(Lee, 2022) [66] | Volunteer work and loneliness | Country: United States of America Mean age: 75.94 % Female: 59.4 Sample size: 9944 | Loneliness, UCLA-LS-3 | NS | Self-Complete Survey | Public Third-Places | NS | Age, Education, Employment, Ethnicity, Gender, Marital Status, Living Arrangement, Self-Rated Health, Physical Limitations, Religion | Need more research to understand how socio-demographic and culture influence the association between volunteer work and loneliness |
(Moorer & Suurmeijer, 2001) [68] | A neighbourhood effect for social network size and loneliness | Country: Netherlands Mean age: 74.6 Sample size: 723 | Loneliness, DJG-LS-11 | Social Network, ‘social network delineation questionnaire’ | Self-Complete Survey | Public Third-Places, Neighbourhood Safety | NS | Physical Limitations, Religion | No future research recommendations |
(Park et al. 2021) [71] | Age friendly environments and loneliness | Country: South Korea Mean age: 69.78 % Female: 48.2 Sample size: 353 | Loneliness, UCLA-LS-3 | NS | Face-to-Face Interview Surveys | Open Green Spaces, Walkability, Transport Access, Public Third-Places, Neighbourhood Safety | Perceptions Of Ageism | Chronic Condition, Education, Gender, Income, Marital Status, Self-Rated Health, | Need longitudinal data on the effect of Age Friendly Environments on loneliness and depressive symptoms |
(Rezaeipandari et al. 2020) [74] | Social participation and sense of loneliness | Country: Iran Mean age: 70 % Female: 68 Sample size: 200 | Loneliness, Social and Emotional Loneliness Scale | NS | Face-to-Face Interview Surveys | Transport Access, Public Third-Places, Neighbourhood Safety | NS | Education, Employment, Gender, Income, Marital Status, Living Arrangement | Need for more data allowing for causal inferences |
(Stephens & Phillips, 2022) [80] | Perceived neighbourhood environment and emotional and social loneliness and the mediating effects of social networks | Country: New Zealand/ Aotearoa Mean age: 75 % Female: 53.2 Sample size: 917 | Loneliness, DJG-LS-6 | NS | Self-Complete Survey | Accessible Services, Social Cohesion, Neighbourhood Safety | Neighbourhood Belonging | Gender, Marital Status, Physical Limitations | Need more social structures to encourage natural social opportunities |
(Timmermans et al. 2021) [81] | Objectively measured social and physical neighbourhood characteristics and loneliness | Country: Netherlands Mean age: 72.8 % Female: 49 Sample size: 1959 | Loneliness, DJG-LS-6 | NS | Self-Complete Survey | Public Third-Places, Neighbourhood Safety | Social Security Recipients | Age, Education, Gender, Income, Marital Status | More data examining environmental characteristics on loneliness in older adults |
(Woolham et al. 2013) [83] | Factors associated with loneliness | Country: UK Sample size: 1558 | Loneliness, Single Question 'Do you ever feel lonely and wish you had more company?' | NS | Self-Complete Survey | Transport Access, Neighbourhood Safety | NS | Age, Employment, Ethnicity, Income, Self-Rated Health | Qualitative research on groups of people underrepresented in community surveys |
(Zhang & Lu, 2022) [85] | Financial status as a moderator of neighbourhood environment and loneliness | Country: China Mean age: 68.4 % Female: 55.8 Sample size: 459 | Loneliness, DJG-LS-6-Chinese | NS | Face-to-Face Interview Surveys | Neighbourhood Safety | Neighbourhood Belonging | Age, Chronic Condition, Education, Gender, Marital Status, Living Arrangement, Physical Limitations | Examine the relationship between loneliness and the neighbourhood environment in rural areas |
Cohort | |||||||||
(Beller & Wagner, 2020) [42] | Individualism /collectivism and loneliness | Country: Austria, Belgium, Switzerland, Czech Republic, Germany, Denmark, Estonia, Spain, France, Israel, Italy, Luxembourg, Sweden, and Slovenia Mean age: 68 % Female: 57 Sample size: 40,797 | Loneliness, UCLA-LS-3 | NS | Face-to-Face Interview Surveys | NS | Cultural Practices | Age, Education, English Proficiency, Gender, Physical Limitations, Mental Health | Need more research to see if being from a collectivist country has the same effect on loneliness in younger people |
(Garner et al. 2022) [53] | Frailty and mental well- through COVID-19 lockdowns | Country: UK, Spain % Female: 67.14 Sample size: 70 | Loneliness, UCLA-LS-3 | Social Isolation, Adult Social Care Outcomes Toolkit (ASCOT) | Face-to-Face Interview Surveys | Transport Access, Public Third-Places | NS | Age, Education, Income | No future research recommendations |
(Settels, 2021) [78] | Neighbourhood conditions, the recession and the sizes of and turnover within social networks | Country: United States of America Mean age: 68.3 % Female: 51.31 Sample size: 1788 | NS | Social Network, Single question 'Number of social ties' | Face-to-Face Interview Surveys | Neighbourhood Disadvantage | Social Security Recipients | Age, Chronic Condition, Education, Employment, Ethnicity, Gender, Income, Marital Status, Mental Health | Research older people in neighbourhoods that are experiencing changes |
(Yang & Moorman, 2021) [84] | Neighbourhood trust, loneliness and number of friends | Country: United States of America Sample size: 5817 | Loneliness, UCLA-LS-11 | NS | Self-Complete Survey | Social Cohesion | Neighbourhood Belonging | Income, Marital Status, Physical Limitations | Intervention targeting neighbourhood trust and more longitudinal data |
Intervention | Community Intervention | Societal Intervention | |||||||
Pre-post Test | |||||||||
(Bartlett et al. 2013) [36] | Participation in three community programmes, levels of loneliness and social support | Country: Australia Mean age: 70.67 Sample size: 59 | Loneliness, DJG-LS-11 | NS | Self-Complete Survey | Three local interventions with local community services | NS | NS | Need more research on larger sample sizes and with more standardised controlled designs |
(Bartsch & Rodgers, 2009) [37] | Senior Reach Gatekeeper Program outcomes and those of the established Spokane program | Country: United States of America % Female: 75 Sample size: 226 | NS | Social Isolation, Tool Not Provided | Face-to-Face Interview Surveys | Community referral to a combination of available services, which may be mental health only, care management only, information and referral, or a combination | NS | NS | No future research recommendations |
(Bartsch et al. 2013) [38] | Senior Reach Gatekeeper Program outcomes and those of the established Spokane program and the MKSO program | Country: United States of America % Female: 75 Sample size: 416 | NS | Social Isolation, Tool Not Provided | Face-to-Face Interview Surveys | Community referral to a combination of available services, which may be mental health only, care management only, information and referral, or a combination | NS | NS | No future research recommendations |
(Butler, 2006) [44] | The senior companion program | Country: United States of America Mean age: 78 % Female: 81.8 Sample size: 66 | Loneliness, UCLA-LS-20 | Social Network, LSNS-A-6 | Face-to-Face Interview Surveys | Older volunteers complete in-home visits to less mobile older people | NS | NS | Need more research on how social workers might approach loneliness program evaluations |
(Carandang et al. 2020) [46] | Community-based interventions to alleviate depressive symptoms | Country: Philippines Mean age: 68 % Female: 70.83 Sample size: 264 | Loneliness, UCLA-LS-8 | NS | Face-to-Face Interview Surveys | Peer counselling with 1-h weekly home visits, or to 3-h weekly social events held at a local senior centre, or both | NS | NS | Need more research on the long-term benefits of loneliness interventions |
(Coll‐Planas et al. 2017) [47] | The intervention in mixed areas of diverse socioeconomic levels and to assess the effects on loneliness | Country: Spain Mean age: 77.24 % Female: 95 Sample size: 38 | Loneliness, DJG-LS-11 | NS | Face-to-Face Interview Surveys | A group-based program, promoting social participation among lonely older people | NS | NS | Clinical trials to provide evidence for a causal inference and for cost-effectiveness |
(Gonyea & Burnes, 2013) [56] | Assistance for seniors, opportunities to build connections, feelings of loneliness or isolation, and aging-friendly communities | Country: United States of America Mean age: 81 % Female: 85 Sample size: 33 | Loneliness, UCLA-LS-20 | NS | Face-to-Face Interview Surveys | Community organisation providing services increasing access to existing community resources through outreach, education, advocacy, and providing transportation | NS | NS | Need more longitudinal studies that track participants of interventions |
(Honigh-De Vlaming et al. 2013) [60] | Healthy Ageing in relation to loneliness | Country: Netherlands Mean age: 74 % Female: 56 Sample size: 858 | Loneliness, DJG-LS-11 | NS | Self-Complete Survey | NS | A mass media campaign, information meetings for interested local elderly people, psychosocial group courses for persons with mental health problems or chronic diseases, social activation by the community-based Neighbours Connected intervention, and training of intermediaries (homecare nurses, municipal advisors, and volunteers) | Age, Education, Gender, Income, Marital Status | Need more co-designed research with older people and the people delivering the interventions |
(Merchant et al. 2021) [67] | Cognition amongst those at risk of isolation | Country: Singapore Sample size: 197 | NS | Social Network, LSNS-6 | Face-to-Face Interview Surveys | HAPPY- a dual-task exercise program adapted from cognicise, conducted in existing community sites by local volunteers | NS | Age | Need more commitment from sectors addressing older people’s health to implement healthy ageing initiatives |
(Mulligan & Bennett, 1977) [69] | A resocialization program to reduce social isolation | Country: United States of America Mean age: 77 % Female: 91.3 Sample size: 23 | NS | Social Isolation, Adulthood Isolation Index and Past Month Isolation Index | Face-to-Face Interview Surveys | Home visits from volunteers with an emphasis on friendly conversation | NS | NS | Program could conducts regular visits to older people to reduce their loneliness |
(Mullins et al. 2020) [70] | A community-engaged, culturally informed technology program to address social isolation and loneliness | Country: United States of America Mean age: 74 Sample size: 262 | Loneliness, UCLA-LS-20 | NS | Self-Complete Survey | Internet provided to the older people's dwellings along with volunteers to run classes | NS | NS | Need longer evaluation periods for intervention studies like this one |
(Passmore et al. 2007) [72] | The relationship between participating in community-based recreation activities and loneliness | Country: United States of America Mean age: 68.27 % Female: 56.67 Sample size: 30 | Loneliness, UCLA-LS-10 | NS | Face-to-Face Interview Surveys | Eight different Empowerment Groups built from existing community services | NS | NS | Interventions which control for the economic and social backgrounds of participants |
(Reinhard et al. 2018) [73] | Social isolation, loneliness, and social engagement and transport use | Country: UK % Female: 54.7 Sample size: 18,164 | Loneliness, UCLA-LS-3 | Social Isolation, frequency of visits | Face-to-Face Interview Surveys | NS | Introduction of policy for an age-eligibility threshold for free bus travel | Age, Employment, Gender, Income, Marital Status, Physical Limitations, Religion, Children | No future research recommendations |
(Roberts et al. 2020) [75] | A service designed to alleviate loneliness and isolation | Country: UK Mean age: 76.7 % Female: 81.7 Sample size: 120 | Loneliness, DJG-LS-6 | Social Isolation, LSNS-6 | Face-to-Face Interview Surveys | Cadwyn Môn- Volunteer companionship, practical and psychological support | NS | NS | Need more trial style studies and an economic analysis of how cost-effective the intervention is |
(Sandu et al. 2021) [77] | Using simple technology like telephone calls to reduce social isolation | Country: United States of America Sample size: 141 | Loneliness, UCLA-LS-10 | NS | Face-to-Face Interview Surveys | Community service agency paired student volunteers with their older adult clients in the community | NS | NS | Research effects of gender, age, socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and income on loneliness and social isolation |
(Steinman et al. 2021) [79] | A program’s effect on social connectedness | Country: United States of America Mean age: 72.9 % Female: 79.1 Sample size: 320 | Loneliness, UCLA-LS-3 | NS | Face-to-Face Interview Surveys | Home-visits by trained front-line providers | NS | NS | Research how participants perceived age may affect their loneliness |
(Toseland et al. 1979) [82] | Social isolation and obtaining needed social services | Country: United States of America % Female: 68.1 Sample size: 72 | NS | Social Network, Tool Not Provided | Face-to-Face Interview Surveys | Peer counsellor home visits to assess the client's immediate social service needs. To help social relationships, networking techniques are used | NS | NS | Need more research on developing older people's self-help coping strategies and to foster social connections |
Randomised Control Trial | |||||||||
(Jones et al. 2019) [61] | A group exercise and socialisation/health education intervention and loneliness among those with hearing loss | Country: Canada Mean age: 74.5 % Female: 43 Sample size: 66 | Loneliness, DJG-LS-11 | NS | Face-to-Face Interview Surveys | Community organisation run program promoting socialisation | NS | NS | Need a larger sample size and more longitudinal data on this intervention |
(Saito et al. 2012) [76] | A social isolation prevention program and loneliness | Country: Japan Mean age: 72 % Female: 65 Sample size: 63 | Loneliness, Ando-Osada-Kodama (AOK) loneliness scale | Social Network, Single Question 'frequency of face-to-face contact with friends or neighbour’s’ | Self-Complete Survey | NS | Group-based educational, cognitive, and social support program for improving community knowledge and networking with other participants. Included link workers to connect with services | NS | Need a larger sample size and to develop a variety of group-based programs targeting specific populations |