Table 3 Association of number of self-reported language proficiency with overall cognitive function, verbal fluency, and memory overall, in people living in the community in Zurich and Ticino, and in long-term care homes in Ticino – the SwissDEM study

B(95% CI); p-value

ß

B(95% CI); p-value

ß

B(95% CI); p-value

ß

B(95% CI); p-value

ß

Overall cognitive performance

Unadjusted model

Language proficiency

0.05 (0.02; 0.09); 0.006

0.09

0.05 (-0.13; 0.22); 0.589

0.05

0.00 (-0.04; 0.05); 0.901

0.01

0.02 (-0.00; 0.03); 0.012

0.10

 F

(1,1018) = 7.66; 0.006

(1, 102) = 0.293; 0.589

(1, 310) = 0.015; 0.901

(1; 602) = 6.411; 0.012

Adjusted R²

0.006

-0.007

-0.003

0.009

Adjusted model

Language proficiency

0.03 (0.01; 0.06) 0.014

0.05

0.04 (-0.13; 0.21); 0.629

0.01

0.00 (-0.04; 0.05); 0.857

0.010

0.02 (-0.00; 0.03); 0.011

0.10

Age

-0.16 (-0.19; -0.13) < 0.001

-0.27

-0.24 (-0.42; -0.05); 0.011

-0.25

-0.16 (-0.22; -0.11); <0.001

− 0.33

-0.05 (-0.06; 0.03); <0.001

-0.23

Gender

-0.49 (-0.87; -0.10) = 0.013

-0.05

-2.16 (-5.70; 1.38); 0.857

-0.12

-0.05 (-0.74; 0.65); 0.889

− 0.01

-0.07 (-0.13; 0.27); 0.507

-0.03

Sample

3.68 (3.35; 4.01) < 0.001

0.55

 F

(4, 1015) = 310.429; <0.001

(3, 100) = 3.066; 0.031

(3, 308) = 12.618; <0.001

(3, 600) = 13.666; <0.001

Adjusted R²

0.548

0.057

0.101

0.058

Verbal fluency

Unadjusted model

Language proficiency

0.11 (0.05; 0.18); <0.001

0.11

0.01 (-0.13; 0.12); 0.903

-0.01

0.03 (-0.07; 0.12): 0.581

0.03

0.11 (0.05; 0.18); 0.001

0.13

 F

(1,1018) = 12.240; <0.001

(1,1024) = 13.801; <0.001

(1, 102) = 0.015; 0.903

(1, 310) = 0.305; 0.581

(1, 602) = 11.077, 0.001

Adjusted R²

0.011

0.012

0.010

-0.002

0.016

Adjusted model

Language proficiency

0.08 (0.03; 0.13) 0.001

0.08

-0.02 (-0.1; 0.10); 0.748

-0.03

0.03 (-0.06; 0.11); 0.521

0.03

0.11 (0.05; 0.17); 0.001

0.13

Age

-0.30 (-0.36; -0.25) < 0.001

− 0.30

-0.15 (-0.28; -0.02); 0.021

-0.22

-0.32 (-0.43; -0.22); <0.001

-0.33

-0.25 (-0.32; -0.17); <0.001

-0.25

Gender

-0.50 (-1.22; 0.23) 0.178

− 0.03

-3.20 (-5.69; -0.713); 0.012

-0.24

-1.49; (-2.84; -0.14): 0.030

-0.12

0.61 (-0.30, 1.53); 0.189

0.05

Sample

5.27 (4.65; 5.90) < 0.001

0.46

 F

(4, 1015) = 210.034; <0.001

(3, 100) = 4.496; 0.005

(3, 308) = 15.006; <0.001

(3, 600) = 18.654; <0.001

Adjusted R²

0.451

0.092

0.119

0.081

Immediate and delayed memory

Unadjusted model

Language proficiency

0.14 (0.07; 0.21); <0.001

0.12

-0.05 (-0.17; 0.14); 0.518

-0.05

0.13 (0.04; 0.22): 0.005

0.16

0.09 (0.03; 0.15); 0.003

0.12

 F

(1,1018) = 15.642; <0.001

(1, 102) = 0.420; 0.518

(1, 310) = 7.852; 0.005

(1, 602) = 8.742, 0.003

Adjusted R²

0.014

-0.006

0.022

0.013

Adjusted model

Language proficiency

0.10 (0.06; 0.15) < 0.001

0.09

-0.05 (-0.17; 0.11); 0.487

-0.07

0.13 (0.05; 0.22); 0.003

0.16

0.09 (0.04; 0.15); 0.002

0.12

Age

-0.31 (-0.36; -0.26) < 0.001

− 0.28

-0.22 (-0.46; -0.09); 0.003

-0.29

-0.34 (-0.44; -0.23); <0.001

-0.34

-0.25 (-0.31; -0.18); <0.001

-0.27

Gender

1.69 (0.99; 2.38) < 0.001

0.10

-1.10 (-4.28; 1.55); 0.452

-0.07

0.60; (-0.77; 1.96): 0.389

0.05

2.84 (2.01, 3.66); <0.001

0.25

Sample

7.13 (6.54; 7.73) < 0.001

0.57

 F

(4, 1015) = 335.495; <0.001

(3, 100) = 3.551; 0.017

(3, 308) = 16.592; <0.001

(3, 600) = 37.090, < 0.001

Adjusted R²

0.568

0.069

0.131

0.152