Table 2 Association of languages spoken with overall cognitive function, verbal fluency, and memory overall, in people living in the community in Zurich and Ticino, and in long-term care homes in Ticino – the SwissDEM study

B(95% CI); p-value

ß

B(95% CI); p-value

ß

B(95% CI); p-value

ß

B(95% CI); p-value

ß

Overall cognitive performance

Unadjusted model

Languages spoken

1.45 (1.22; 1.69); <0.001

0.34

0.37 (-0.65; 1.39); 0.474

0.05

0.57 (0.26; 0.87); <0.001

0.18

0.97 (0.63; 1.31); <0.001

0.21

 F

(1,1221) = 161.79; <0.001

(1,174) = 0.514; 0.474

(1,383) = 13.485; <0.001

(1,660) = 14.729; <0.001

Adjusted R²

0.116

-0.003

0.031

0.020

Adjusted model

Languages spoken

0.37 (0.20; 0.54); <0.001

0.09

0.41 (-0.59; 1.412); 0.416

0.06

0.46 (0.17; 0.74); 0.002

0.15

0.15 (0.07; 0.23); <0.001

0.14

Age

-0.18 (-0.21; -0.15); <0.001

-0.26

-0.22 (-0.38; -0.07); 0.006

-0.21

-0.19 (-0.24; -0.14); <0.001

-0.34

-0.06 (-0.07; -0.04); <0.001

-0.25

Gender

-0.19 (-0.60; 0.22); 0.35

-0.02

0.62 (-1.97; 3.22); 0.637

0.04

0.17 (-0.51; 0.84); 0.626

0.02

0.09 (-0.10; 0.29); 0.350

-0.04

Sample

3.94 (3.59; 4.29); <0.001

0.53

 F

(4, 1218) = 398.74; <0.001

(3, 172) = 2.795; 0.042

(3,381) = 22.437; <0.001

(3,658) = 21.121; <0.001

Adjusted R²

0.566

0.030

0.143

0.082

Verbal fluency

Unadjusted model

Languages spoken

2.78 (1.94; 2.61); <0.001

0.36

0.20 (-0.49; 0.90); 0.565

0.04

0.83 (0.30; 1.40); 0.002

0.16

0.84 (0.48; 1.20); <0.001

0.18

 F

(1,1221) = 178.550; <0.001

(1, 174) = 0.333; 0.565

(1, 383) = 9.418; 0.002

(1,660) = 21.121; <0.001

Adjusted R²

0.127

-0.004

0.021

0.030

Adjusted model

Languages spoken

0.77 (0.50; 1.04); <0.001

0.12

0.24 (-0.45; 0.93); 0.494

0.05

0.64 (0.14; 1.14); 0.012

0.12

0.81 (0.46; 1.16); <0.001

0.17

Age

-0.28 (-0.33; -0.24); <0.001

-0.28

-0.13 (-0.24; -0.02); 0.020

-0.18

-0.32 (-0.40; -0.23); <0.001

-0.33

-0.24 (-0.31; -0.16); <0.001

-0.24

Gender

-0.17 (-0.83; 0.48); 0.600

-0.01

-0.20 (-1.99; 1.549); 0.828

− 0.02

-0.93 (-2.11; 0.24): 0.119

-0.07

0.64 (-0.23; 1.51); 0.151

0.05

Sample

5.25 (4.69; 5.81); <0.001

-0.47

 F

(4, 1218) = 328.983; <0.001

(3, 172) = 2.012; 0.114

(3, 381) = 20.864; <0.001

(3,658) = 22.454; <0.001

Adjusted R²

0.518

0.017

0.134

0.089

Immediate and delayed memory

Unadjusted model

Languages spoken

2.88 (2.51; 3.24); <0.001

0.41

0.34 (-0.45; 1.14); 0.396

0.06

1.52 (0.98; 2.06); <0.001

0.27

0.97 (0.63; 1.31); <0.001

0.21

 F

(1,1221) = 240.304; <0.001

(1,174) = 0.724; 0.396

(1,383) = 30.253; <0.001

(1,660) = 30.888; <0.001

Adjusted R²

0.164

-0.002

0.071

0.043

Adjusted model

Languages spoken

1.06 (0.80; 1.32) < 0.001

0.15

0.37 (-0.41; 1.16); 0.346

0.07

1.31 (0.80; 1.82); <0.001

0.23

0.94 (0.63; 1.31); <0.001

0.21

Age

-0.30 (-0.35; -0.26) < 0.001

-0.27

-0.18 (-0.30; -0.05); 0.005

-0.21

-0.34 (-0.43; -0.25); <0.001

-0.34

-0.24 (-0.31; -0.18); <0.001

-0.26

Gender

1.84 (1.20; 2.47) < 0.001

0.1

0.63 (-1.40; 2.65); 0.542

-0.05

0.21 (0.02; 2.41); 0.05

0.09

-0.03 (-0.30; 0.48); 0.851

-0.24

Sample

-6.98 (6.44; 7.53) < 0.001

0.56

 F

(4, 1218) = 524.575; <0.001

(3, 172) = 2.933; 0.035

(3,381) = 31.163; <0.001

(3,658) = 46.442; <0.001

Adjusted R²

0.632

0.032

0.191

0.171