Table 4 Fully adjusted odds ratios comparing odds of loneliness among immigrant and Canadian-born older adults

Individual-Level Factors

 Age

1.02 (0.99–1.04)

1.00 (0.99–1.02)

 Sex

 Male

(ref)

(ref)

 Female

1.42 (0.93–2.18)

1.50 (1.13–1.99)**

 Marital Status

 Married or Common-Law

(ref)

(ref)

 Separated or Divorced

2.14 (0.99–4.61)

1.73 (1-2.99)

 Single, Never Married

0.78 (0.26–2.34)

1.13 (0.54–2.38)

 Widowed

1.98 (1.08–3.62)*

1.55 (0.94–2.55)

 Education Level

 Less Than Secondary School

0.80 (0.52–1.23)

1.07 (0.8–1.43)

 Secondary School

0.71 (0.43–1.16)

1.11 (0.74–1.67)

 Some Post-Secondary School

0.56 (0.20–1.55)

0.77 (0.43–1.38)

 Completed Post-Secondary School

(ref)

(ref)

 Self-Perceived Health

 Good/Very Good/Excellent

(ref)

(ref)

 Fair/Poor

1.85 (1.24–2.75)**

1.22 (0.88–1.70)

 Self-Perceived Mental Health

 Good/Very Good/Excellent

(ref)

(ref)

 Fair/Poor

0.80 (0.37–1.73)

2.91 (1.57–5.40)***

 Number of Primary Care Visits in Past Year

1.02 (0.99–1.06)

0.99 (0.96–1.01)

 Have Valid Driver’s License

 No

(ref)

(ref)

 Yes

0.89 (0.57–1.39)

1.06 (0.75–1.5)

 Time in Canada

0.98 (0.97–0.99)**

-

Relationship-Level Factors

 Positive Social Interaction - Index Score

0.79 (0.75–0.84)***

0.82 (0.79–0.86)***

 Frequency of Community-Related Activity Participation

 Daily

(ref)

(ref)

 Weekly

0.78 (0.43–1.41)

0.79 (0.54–1.15)

 Monthly

0.87 (0.43–1.75)

1.01 (0.62–1.66)

 Yearly

0.97 (0.41–2.31)

0.79 (0.39–1.62)

 None

0.63 (0.18–2.14)

1.08 (0.39–2.98)

 Wanted to Participate More in Social, Recreational, Group Activity

 No

(ref)

(ref)

 Yes

3.60 (2.34–5.54)***

3.65 (2.78–4.79)***

 Sense of Belonging to Local Community

 Strong

(ref)

(ref)

 Weak

1.01 (0.69–1.48)

1.41 (1.06–1.88)*

 Household Size

0.93 (0.74–1.17)

1.26 (0.84–1.88)

 Living Arrangement

 Living with Others

(ref)

(ref)

 Living Alone

1.73 (0.87–3.42)

2.60 (1.44–4.70)**

 Type of Dwelling

 Single Detached

(ref)

(ref)

 Apartment

0.74 (0.45–1.20)

0.89 (0.63–1.27)

 Mobile Home

0.87 (0.05–15.70)

1.27 (0.48–3.39)

 Other Multiple Dwelling Unit

1.06 (0.62–1.81)

0.95 (0.61–1.48)

 Other

0.62 (0.00-164.91)

0.28 (0.02–3.59)

Community-Level Factors

 Dependency Factor Score

0.92 (0.71–1.19)

1.06 (0.93–1.29)

 Ethnic Diversity Factor Score

0.78 (0.66–0.93)**

0.88 (0.75–1.04)

 Neighbourhood Income Quintile

 Quintile 1

2.04 (1.04–3.98)*

0.84 (0.51–1.39)

 Quintile 2

1.46 (0.82–2.59)

1.06 (0.68–1.66)

 Quintile 3

0.98 (0.50–1.94)

0.98 (0.63–1.54)

 Quintile 4

1.67 (0.94–2.98)

0.73 (0.47–1.12)

 Quintile 5

(ref)

(ref)