Table 1 Characteristics of the included studies
Study author, year (Country/Language) | Population | Intervention | Comparison | Outcome measurement | Safety monitoring | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Disease-related characteristics | E (M:F) | C (M:F) | Age, years (group)b | TCQ type | Intensity (time × session/W × duration) | Setting |  | Physical function | Cognitive function |  | |
Taylor-Piliae, 2010 [40] (USA/English)a | Age ≥ 60 years, healthy | 37 (13:24) | AC: 39 (11:28) UC: 56 (16:40) | 70.6 ± 5.9 (E) 68.5 ± 5.0 (AC) 68.2 ± 6.2 (UC) | Tai Chi, 12-form Yang style | 1) Adoption phase: 1 h × 5/W (group × 2 + home × 3) × 12 Ws 2) Maintenance phase: 1 h × 4/W(group × 1 + home × 3) × 12 Ws | Community | 1) Western exercise 2) Healthy-aging education | OLS FRT Arm curls Chair-stand test Back-scratch test Sit-and-reach test | Animal-naming test Digit span forward Digit span backward | NI |
Lavretsky, 2011 [73] (USA/English) | Age ≥ 60 years, geriatric depression | 36 (13:23) | 37 (15:22) | 69.1 ± 7.0 (E) 72.0 ± 7.4 (C) | Tai Chi | Group: 2 h × 1/W × 10 Ws | Community | Health education | SF-36 (physical health) | MMSE CVLT TMT B–A | No adverse events |
Tsai, 2013 [74] (USA/English) | Age ≥ 60 years, mild-to-moderate CI with knee OA | 28 (6:22) | 27 (9:18) | 78.9 ± 6.9 (E) 78.9 ± 8.3 (C) | Tai Chi, 12-form Sun style | Group: 20–40 min × 3/W × 20 W | Community | Health education, culture-related activities, and social activities | WOMAC (physical functioning) TUG test Sit-to-stand test | MMSE | No adverse events |
Tsang, 2013 [75] (Hong Kong/English) | Age ≥ 60 years, frail | 61 (14:47) | 55 (15:40) | 83.3 ± 6.3 (E) 84.9 ± 6.0 (C) | Novel health Qigong | Group: 1 h × 2/W × 12 Ws | Elderly service unit at hospital | Newspaper reading | Handgrip strength TUG test | LOTCA-G | No adverse events |
Lam, 2014 [76] (Hong Kong/English) | Age ≥ 65 years, MCI or amnestic MCI | 171 (46:125) | 218 (46:172) | 77.2 ± 6.3 (E) 78.3 ± 6.6 (C) | Tai Chi, 24 style | 1) Adoption phase: group, 30 min × 3/W × 4–6Ws 2) Maintenance phase: home, 30 min × 3/W × 46–48 Ws, refresher lessons every month | Residential home | Stretching and relaxation exercises | BBS | ADA MMSE Digit span backward Visual span backward Delay recall Verbal fluency | NI |
Sun, 2015 [77] (China/English) | Age ≥ 60 years, healthy | 72 (14:48) | 66 (20:46) | 68.3 ± 5.9 © 70.1 ± 5.7 (C) | Tai Chi, 24-form Yang style | Group: 1 h × 2/W × 6 Ms | Community | Nonathletic care | OLS 5-m high walking speed 10-m normal walking speed Handgrip strength (both) | MMSE | NI |
Hwang, 2016 [78] (Taiwan/English) | Age ≥ 60 years, fall risk | 228 (75:153) | 228 (77:151) | 72.0 ± 8.1 (E) 72.7 ± 8.1 (C) | Tai Chi, 18-form Yang style | Individual: 1 h × 1/W × 6 Ms, self-practice every day | Community | Lower extremity training | Handgrip strength (right hand) Tinetti balance test Tinetti gait test | MMSE | No adverse events |
Lu, 2016 [79] (Hong Kong/English) | Healthy female older adults | 15 (0:15) | 16 (0:16) | 72.8 ± 6.7 (E) 67.3 ± 6.6 (C) | Tai Chi, 12-form Yang style | Group: 90 min × 3/W × 16 Ws | Community | Usual care | Computerized gait analysis | Auditory Stroop test: single/dual task | No adverse events |
Sungkarat, 2017 [21] (Thailand/English) | Age ≥ 60 years, MCI | 33 (2:31) | 33 (7:26) | 68.3 ± 6.7 (E) 67.5 ± 7.3 (C) | Tai Chi, 10-form style | 1) Group: 50 min × 3/W × 3 Ws 2) Home: 50 min × 3/W × 12 Ws | Community | Educational material | PPA | Wechsler Memory Scale; delayed recall Block-design test Digit span forward/backward TMT B–A | No adverse events |
van West, 2018 [80] (New Zealand/English) | Age ≥ 60 years, healthy | 43 (11:32) | 36 (7:29) | 69.1 [60-86] (E) 67.6 [60-80] (C) | Tai Chi, 18-form Yang style | Group:1 h × 2/W × 4 Ws | NI | International POI | FRT Four-stage balance test Pinch and handgrip strength Chair-stand test ROM; wrist, elbow, and shoulder | NCI; average of five domain scores (composite memory, psychomotor speed, reaction time, complex attention, and cognitive flexibility) | NI |
Li, 2018 [81] (China/Chinese) | Age 60–70 years, MCI | 10 | 10 | 61.4 ± 1.84 (E) 62.1 ± 2.08 (C) | Qigong, Baduanjin | 1) Adoption phase: group 60 min × 5/W × 2 Ws 2) Maintenance phase: group 60 min × 5/W × 14 Ws | Community | Usual care | CM-PPT Computerized gait analysis | Erikson flanker task More-odd shifting task 2-back task | Adjust the exercise intensity according to heart rate |
Lipsitz, 2019 [82] (USA/English) | Age ≥ 60 years, healthy | 93 (30:63) | 87 (30:57) | 75.9 ± 9.1 (E) 74.6 ± 8.6 (C) | Tai Chi, 9-form Yang style | Group intervention × 2/W and home practice 20 min × 3/W × 52 Ws (6-month effect reported as a recommendation to end the trial by the Data and Safety Monitoring Board) | Housing facility | Health education (monthly) | SPPB SF-12 (physical health) PASE Gait velocity | TMT: B–A | Minor musculoskeletal complaints |
Chewning, 2020 [83] (USA/English) | Age ≥ 65 years, Fall risk | 94 (18:76) | 103 (13:90) | 75.0 ± 7.4 (E) 72.8 ± 7.0 (C) | Tai Chi, Yang style | Group: 1.5 h × 2/W × 6 Ws and home-practice coaching | Community | No treatment | TUG test Chair-stand test Four-stage balance test | TMT B | NI |
Zheng, 2020 [84] (China/English) | Age 45–75 years, stroke survivors with MCI | 24 (19:5) | 24 (22:2) | 61.6 ± 9.2 (E) 62.8 ± 6.4 (C) | Qigong, Baduanjin | Group: 40 min × 3/W × 24 Ws | Community | No treatment | MBI | MoCA TMT: B–A AVLT TAP DSC CDT | No adverse events |
Wu, 2021 [85] (China/English) | Age 50–85 years, Healthy | 19 (4:15) | 19 (1:18) | 63.6 ± 4.0 (E) 63.2 ± 4.4 (C) | Tai Chi, 24-form Yang style | Group: 60 min × tri-weekly × 12 Ws | NI | Telephone consultation (every other week) | Knee extensor strength, 6MWT | IED | NI |
Jiayuan, 2022 [86] (China,/English) | Age ≥ 65 years, Prefrail and frail | 31 (11:18) | 30 (13:17) | 71.7 ± 3.9 (E) 70.8 ± 4.2 (C) | Tai Chi, 24-form Yang style | 1) 1st stage: Group 60 min × 2/W × 3 Ms 2) 2nd stage: Individual practice 60 min × 2/W × 3 Ms | Community | Booklet about mindfulness skill | SPPB TUG test Chair-stand test | MMSE | NI |
Lavretsky, 2022 [87] (USA/English) | Age ≥ 60 years, geriatric depression | 89 (27:62) | 89 (22:67) | 69.2 ± 6.9 (E) 69.4 ± 6.2 (C) | Tai Chi | 1) Group: 60 min × 1/W × 6 Ws and home practice for 20 min/day using handouts 2) Virtual: 60 min × 1/W × 6 Ws and home practice for 20 min/day using handouts | Community | Health education and wellness training | SF-36 | CVLT ROCFT TMT: B–A Stroop interference COWAT Animal fluency Boston Naming Test | No adverse events |