Table 2 Pre/post-intervention outcome measures and results of yoga interventions involving people with MCI and dementia. Within-group findings are narratively discussed first, followed by between-group outcomes (if relevant)

Eyre et al. (2017) [22];

Eyre et al. (2016) [23]

Yang et al. (2016) [24]

Cognition: verbal memory (HVLT-R, WMS-IV), visual memory (Rey-O), executive function (Trails B, Stroop Colour Task, Animal Naming Test)

Mental health: mood (GDS), apathy (AES), resilience (CDRS);

Cognition: verbal memory (HVLT-R), visual memory (Rey-O)

Cognition: impairment (MMSE)

Both YG and CG showed enhanced verbal memory (all p ≤ 0.002) and visual memory (all p ≤ 0.01), while only YG improved on all executive function tests (all p ≤ 0.03), particularly relative to the CG on Trail Making Test B (p = 0.04).

Both YG and EG improved on apathy (all p ≤ 0.002), but only YG improved on mood (p = 0.01) and resilience (p = 0.03).

Only the YG showed enhanced visual memory (p = 0.03). NS between-group differences.

NS within and between-group differences found.

Karydaki et al. (2017) [25]

Cognition: impairment (MMSE);

Mental health: sleep quality (PSQI);

Physical health: upper body strength (arm curl), lower body strength (30-second chair stand), cardiopulmonary fitness (2-minute step test), agility and dynamic balance (8-ft up & go test)

Only the EG had enhanced sleep quality (p = 0.03). There were NS within-group and between-group changes for the YG and CG in cognition and mental health.

EG also had better lower body strength (p = 0.002), while the YG showed improved cardiopulmonary fitness (p = 0.023) and upper body strength (p = 0.023). Both YG (p = 0.022) and EG (p = 0.001) showed significant within-group improvements in agility and dynamic balance, and relative to the CG (both p = 0.001). Both YG and EG had significantly better lower body strength c.f. the CG (p = 0.001).

Innes et al. (2012) [26]

Cognition: memory function (MFQ)

Mental health: perceived stress (PSS), sleep (GSDS), mood (POMS)

Physical health: blood pressure

Participants improved on memory function (p = 0.04), perceived stress (p = 0.03), sleep quality (p = 0.02), mood (p = 0.01), and systolic blood pressure (p = 0.004).

Reduction in perceived stress correlated with positive mood changes (r = 0.83, p = 0.003) and sleep scores (r = 0.57, p = 0.08). Sleep improvement correlated with mood enhancement (r = 0.71, p = 0.03).

Innes et al. (2016) [27]

Cognition: self-reported cognitive changes (open-ended exit questionnaire);

Mental health: self-reported mood and sleep changes (open-ended exit questionnaire)

Memory improvements were reported by 8.7% of YG and 3.7% of CG samples, while enhancements in clarity and focus were reported by 17.4% of YG and 0% of CG participants, and increased alertness was observed by 8.7% of YG and 0% of CG samples.

74% of YG and 30% of CG participants reported that the programs were relaxing, calming, peaceful and/or uplifting. Sleep improvements were identified by 8.7% of YG and 11.1% of CG participants.

Newberg et al. (2010) [28]

Cognition: impairment (MMSE), semantic memory (Category Fluency), executive function (Trails A, Trails B, WAIS Symbol Substitution Test, Logical Memory Delayed)

Only the YG improved in semantic memory (p = 0.006) and all executive function tests (all p = 0.05), while the CG did not change (all p ≥ 0.11). NS between-group differences found.

Fan et al. (2011) [29]

Mental health: mood (CSDD), problem behaviours (CAPE-BRS);

Physical health: body composition (body fat, BMI), cardiopulmonary functions (blood pressure, pulse rate, respiration rate, breath-holding duration, vital capacity), cardiopulmonary fitness (2-minute step test), body flexibility (sit-and-reach, arm-shoulder flexibility), muscle strength and endurance (hand grip strength, upper limb and lower limb muscle endurance), balance (one-leg standing test, 6-m walking-speed test), joints motion (protractor measurement of hip and shoulder joints)

The YG had enhanced mood (p < 0.001), reduced problem behaviours (p < 0.001), and improved on all physical health measurements (all p ≤ 0.017) except body fat. The CG significantly worsened on breath-holding duration, vital capacity, body flexibility, 6-m walking speed, lower limb muscle endurance, and left and right hip abduction (all p ≤ 0.003), but had NS mental health changes.

Relative to the CG, YG participants showed improvements in mood (p < 0.001), problem behaviours (p < 0.001), systolic blood pressure (p = 0.01), respiration rate p < 0.001), breath-holding duration (p < 0.001), cardiopulmonary fitness (p < 0.001), body flexibility (both p ≤ 0.02), muscle strength and endurance (all p ≤ 0.002), balance (both p ≤ 0.041); and increased joints motion (all p ≤ 0.023).

Litchke et al. (2012) [30]

Litchke et al. (2014) [31]

Cognition: impairment (SPMSQ);

Mental health: anxiety (HAM-A), mood (HAM-D);

Physical health: balance (BBS), daily functioning (Barthel ADL Index)

Cognition: researcher and caregiver observations;

Mental health: mood observed by caregiver;

Physical health: researcher and caregiver observations

The YG had improved mood (p < 0.01) and daily functioning (p = 0.02). All other outcomes were NS.

Reported mood change of participants was positive. Some caregivers also noted improved flexibility and strength.

McCaffrey et al. (2014) [32]

Physical health: exercise tolerance (Six-Minute Walk Test), gait (Gait Speed Test), balance (BBS)

NS changes on all measures except improved balance at 12-week follow-up timepoint (p = 0.034).

Park et al. (2019) [33]

Mental health: anxiety and mood (HADS), agitation (Cohen-Mansfield Agitation Inventory-Short Form), sleep quality (PSQI), daytime sleepiness (Epworth Sleepiness Scale);

Physical health: fitness (mini-PPT), lower extremity function (SPPB), mobility (Timed Up and Go Test), body composition (BMI), hand grip strength (dynamometer)

Post-intervention, anxiety and mood worsened in the CG (p = 0.002) and EG (p = 0.037), as did anxiety in the EG (p = 0.034), and agitation in the YG (p = 0.001).

There were NS within-group changes in physical health and NS between-group differences on all outcomes.

Park et al. (2020) [34]

Cognition: caregiver observations;

Mental health: caregiver observations;

Physical health: caregiver observations

Cognition (specifically memory) was reported to have improved in the YG, while EG and CG participants showed increased communication abilities;

Positive mood changes were observed in the YG and EG;

YG was observed to have improved physical health, specifically mobility, posture, and balance. EG was reported to show general physical health improvements.

Rodríguez Salazar et al. (2017) [35]

Cognition: impairment (MMSE), executive function (Digit Symbol subtest, Trails A, Digit Span subtest in forward and reverse order), exit interview with participants and caregivers;

Mental health: mood (GDS), exit interview with participants and caregivers

NS within-group changes across all measures. However, caregivers and participants self-reported positive changes in participants’ episodic memory, motivation, attention, vitality, and agility.