Table 1 The characteristics of the included studies
Study | Study location | Follow-up, years | Mean age, years | Sample size | Deaths | Frailty assessment | Outcome assessment | Adjustment factors |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mak et al., 2021 [25] | U. K. | 0.6 | 67.6 | T 410199 W 226018 M 184181 | All-cause 3186 COVID-19514 | FP: Frail Prefrail Non-frail FI: Frail (> 0.21) Least fit (0.1–0.21) Less fit (0.03–0.1) Relatively fit (≤0.03) | Death registry | age, sex |
Gilmour et al., 2021 [35] | Canada | 3–5 | 74 | T 29302 W 16724 M 12578 | All-cause 3540 CVD NA Cancer NA Respiratory illness NA | FI: Most frail (≥ 0.45) Moderately frail (0.21–0.45) Prefrail (0.10–0.21) Robust (≤ 0.10) | Vital Statistics Database | age, sex, alcohol use in the past 12 months (regular, occasional, never), smoking (current, former, never), household education, marital status, living arrangements |
Lohman et al., 2020 [26] | U. S. | 5.9 | 73.8 | T 10490 | All-cause 2148 CVD 738 Dementia 131 Cancer 490 Respiratory illness 265 | FP: Frail Prefrail Non-frail | National Death Index | age, race, sex, years of education, marital status, cognitive score, smoking status, number of chronic health conditions, number of ADL limitations, history of heart disease, cancer, diabetes, respiratory disease, or cerebrovascular disease/stroke |
Hoogendijk et al., 2020 [46] | Italy | 6 | 75.2 | T 1129 W 642 M 487 | All-cause 267 CVD 128 | FI:0.01 | Death registry | age, sex, partner status, educational level, smoking |
Farooqi et al., 2020 [37] | Canada | 3.2 | 70.8 | T 154696 W 57238 M 97548 | All-cause 15,067 CVD 9432 | FI: Frail (> 0.21) Prefrail (0.1–0.21) Non-frail (≤0.1) | Standard case report forms | age, sex, ethnicity, smoking history, history of myocardial infarction, stroke, heart failure, diabetes mellitus, hypertension, peripheral arterial disease, elevated BMI, high cholesterol |
Fan et al., 2020 [27] | China | 10·8 | 52·0 | T 512723 W 302521 M 210202 | All-cause 49,371 CVD 18421 Cancer 15,750 Infection 629 Respiratory illness 4652 | FI: Frail (≥ 0.25) Prefrail (0.1–0.25) Robust (≤0.1) | Death registry | age, education level, tobacco smoking, alcohol, intake frequency of fresh fruits, vegetables, red meat, family disease history of heart attack, stroke, cancer |
Li et al., 2019 [34] | Sweden | 17–20 | <60 | T 42953 W 23029 M 19924 | All-cause 12,222 CVD 3270 Cancer 3302 Respiratory illness 1051 | FI:0.1 | Death registry | attained age as time scale, BMI, years of education, tobacco use status, history of CVD, respiratory diseases, cancer |
Grabovac et al., 2019 [28] | Europe | 1–12 | 64.2 | T 24634 W 11435 M 13199 | All-cause 2557 CVD 905 Cancer 770 Respiratory illness 146 Infection 140 | FI: men: Frail (> 3.005) Prefrail (1.211–3.005) Robust (< 1.211) FI: women: Frail (> 2.130) Prefrail (0.315–2.130) Robust (< 0.315) | Interview with a proxy (family or household member) | sex, age, education, BMI, smoking, alcohol consumption, numbers of comorbidities |
Yuki et al., 2018 [47] | Japan | M:7.7 W:7.9 | >70 | T 841 W 434 M 407 | All-cause 113 CVD 30 Cancer 45 | FP: Frail Prefrail Non-frail | Death registry | age, sex, percentage body fat, education, total physical activity, total caloric intake, alcohol intake, current smoking status, household income, Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale score, MMSE score, number of comorbidities |
Higueras-Fresnillo et al., 2018 [48] | Spain | 14 | >70 | T 3896 | All-cause 1801 CVD 672 | FS: Frail Prefrail Non-frail | National Death Index | age, sex, educational level, smoking status, alcohol consumption, BMI, waist circumference, MMSE score |
Crow et al., 2018 [49] | U. S. | 7.98 | 71.1 | T 4984 W 2531 M 2453 | All-cause 1901 CVD 521 | FP: Frail Prefrail Non-frail | National Death Index | age, sex, race, education, smoking, diabetes, heart failure, cancer, coronary artery disease, arthritis |
Adabag et al., 2018 [38] | U. S. | 9.2 | 76.4 | M 3135 | All-cause 1275 CVD 445 | FP: Frail Intermediate stage Robust | Death certificates/ medical records | site, age, race, smoking and comorbid medical conditions (stroke, diabetes mellitus, hypertension, coronary heart disease, peripheral vascular disease, valvular heart disease, CHF, COPD) |
Jiang et al., 2017 [50] | Sweden | 30 | 63.2 | T 1477 W 854 M 623 | All-cause 975 CVD 347 Cancer 232 Dementia 78 | FI: Frail (> 0.21) Least fit (0.1–0.21) Less fit (0.03–0.1) Relatively fit (≤0.03) | Death registry | age, smoking status |
Hou et al.,2022 [32] | U.K. | 11.23 | 56.28 | T 449971 W 250354 M 199617 | All-cause 23,163 | FS: Frail Prefrail Non-frail | Death registry | age, TDI, income, ethnicity, education level, employment status, smoking, alcohol consumption, healthy diet score, BMI, cholesterol, CRP, HDL, LDL, triglycerides, HbA1c |
Baek et al.,2022 [51] | Korea | 12 | 61.7 | T 10254 W 5791 M 4463 | All-cause 2196 | FI: Frail (≥0.25) Pre-frail (0.1–0.25) Robust (≤0.1) | Interview with participants | age, marital status, education level, labor status, household income, cigarette smoking, alcohol drinking |
China | 13 | 74.74 | T 1459 W 750 M 709 | All-cause 938 | FI: Frail Non-frail | Interview with a proxy (family or neighborhood) | age, sex, chronic diseases (hypertension, diabetes, heart disease, COPD) | |
Wang et al.,2021 [53] | China | 4.58 | 85.8 | T 13859 W 7607 M 6252 | All-cause NA | FP: Frail Prefrail Robust | Structured interview | education, household income, smoke status, comorbidity count at baseline |
Shi et al.,2021 [54] | China | 11 | 72.05 | T 1246 W 727 M 519 | All-cause 476 | FI:0.01 | Standard forms | age, gender, years of education, marital status, employment status |
Barker et al.,2021 [55] | South Africa | 1.42 | 61.3 | T 3989 W 2175 M 1814 | All-cause 135 | FI:0.01 | Interview with family | age, sex |
Lee et al.,2021 [44] | Korea | 3 | 74.6 | T 1292 W 717 M 575 | All-cause NA | FS: Frail Prefrail Non-frail | Structured interview | age, gender |
Castellana et al.,2021 [45] | Italy | 4.64 | 73.55 | T 1929 W 955 M 974 | All-cause NA | FP: Frail Prefrail Robust | Death registry | age, sex, education, multimorbidity |
Wuorela et al.,2020 [56] | Finland | 27 | 70 | T 962 W NA M NA | All-cause NA | FI: Frail (≥0.25) Pre-frail (0.9–0.24) Robust (≤0.08) | Death registry | gender |
Salminen et al.,2020 [57] | Finland | 18 | 72.7 | T 1152 W 657 M 495 | All-cause 776 | FS: Frail Prefrail Non-frail | Death registry | age, gender |
Dallmeier et al.,2020 [33] | Germany | 6 | 74 | T 1204 W 692 M 512 | All-cause 196 | FI:0.1 | Death registry | age, years of school education, smoking, alcohol intake |
Wang et al.,2019 [58] | Taiwan | 6.62 | 74 | T 921 W 443 M 478 | All-cause 161 | FP: Frail Prefrail Robust | National Death Database | age, sex, education, marital status, BMI, smoking, alcohol drinking, physical activity, exercising program, hypertension, diabetes mellitus, heart disease, hyperlipidemia, gout, hyperuricemia, arthritis, osteoporosis, stroke, cataract, fall history, sleep impairment, cognitive function |
Shi et al.,2019 [59] | China | 3 | 75.4 | T 1788 W 958 M 830 | All-cause 149 | FP: Frail Prefrail Robust FI: Frail (>0.21) Pre-frail (0.1–0.21) Robust (≤0.1) | Death registry | age, gender, marital status, education level, smoking status, drinking status, BMI, hypertension, diabetes, mild cognitive impairment |
Keeble et al.,2019 [60] | U.K. | 7 | 85 | T 726 W NA M NA | All-cause NA | FI: Frail ≥0.25 Non-frail<0.25 | Death registry | gender |
Jacobsen et al.,2019 [61] | Denmark | 1.13 | NA | T 7327 W 3829 M 3498 | All-cause 49 | FP: Frail Prefrail Robust | Death registry | age, sex |
Zucchelli et al.,2018 [62] | Sweden | 13.2 | 67.1 | T 1115 W 642 M 473 | All-cause 263 | FP: Frail Prefrail Non-frail | Death registry | age, sex, education, cardio-metabolic-, neuro-psychiatric-, musculo-skeletal diseases, cognitive deficit, high CRP, malnutrition |
Lee et al.,2018 [63] | Korea | 3 | 72.9 | T 11266 W 6726 M 4540 | All-cause 738 | FP: Frail Prefrail Non-frail | Interview with the surviving spouse | age, gender, marital status, education, household income, smoking, alcohol drinking, self-rated health, comorbidity, depressive symptoms |
Langholz et al.,2018 [64] | Norway | 10.1 | 77.4 | T 712 W 367 M 345 | All-cause 501 | FP: Frail Prefrail Non-frail | Death registry | age, comorbidity, disability, smoking, education |
Schoufour et al.,2017 [65] | Netherlands | 9.5 | 65.7 | T 11539 W 6677 M 4862 | All-cause 3902 | FI:0.01 | Death registry | age, gender, cohort |
Pereira et al.,2017 [66] | Brazil | 5 | 72.1 | T 689 W 474 M 215 | All-cause 56 | FI: Frail (≥ 0.25) Pre-frail (0.1–0.25) Robust (≤0.1) | Mortality Information System | age, gender |
Papachristou et al.,2017 [39] | U.K. | 2.96 | 77.95 | M 1198 | All-cause 83 | FP: Frail Prefrail Non-frail | Death certificates | age |
Hoogendijk et al.,2017 [67] | Netherlands | 19 | NA | T 2218 W NA M NA | All-cause 1520 | FI:0.01 | Death registry | age, sex |
Turusheva et al.,2016 [68] | Russia | 5 | 79 | T 306 W 233 M 73 | All-cause 120 | FP: Frail Prefrail Robust | Official reports | age, sex, number of comorbidities at the individual level |
Lin et al.,2016 [69] | Taiwan | 4.3 | 66 | T 1245 W 566 M 679 | All-cause 139 | FI: Frail ≥0.2 Non-frail<0.2 FI:0.01 | Death registry | age, sex |
Hyde et al.,2016 [70] | Australia | 6.8 | 60.7 | T 363 W 198 M 165 | All-cause NA | FI: Frail ≥0.2 Non-frail<0.2 | Death Database | age, sex, education, alcohol use, smoking, chewing tobacco |
DÃaz de León González et al.,2016 [71] | Mexico | 2.4 | 66.9 | T 4729 W 2527 M 2202 | All-cause 212 | FS: Frail Prefrail Robust | NA | age, sex, number of depressive symptoms, cognitive score and help in at least one ADL |
Bartley et al.,2016 [36] | U.S. | 6.5 | 78.5 | T 2356 W 1174 M 1182 | All-cause 500 | FI: Frailest (> 0.30) Frail (0.21–0.30) At risk (0.11–0.20) Fit (≤0.10) | NA | age, education, sex |
Jotheeswaran et al.,2015 [72] | Seven LMICsa | 3.9 | 74.1 | T 13924 W 7703 M 6221 | All-cause 2306 | FP: Frail Prefrail Non-frail | Verbal autopsy interview | age, sex, education, disability, health conditions (dementia, depression, number of physical impairments, stroke) |
Kulmala et al.,2014 [73] | Finland | 4 | 82.1 | T 654 W 455 M 199 | All-cause 173 | FP: Frail Prefrail Robust | Death registry | age, group (intervention vs control), education, smoking, Functional Comorbidity Index, functional capacity (Barthel Index), number of medicines |
Ravindrarajah et al.,2013 [40] | Europe | 4.3 | 59.9 | M 2929 | All-cause 193 | FP/FS: Frail Prefrail Robust FI: Frail (>0.21) Pre-frail (0.13–0.21) Robust(<0.13) | Interview with the relatives | age, center, smoking status, partner status |
Garre-Olmo et al.,2013 [74] | Spain | 3.6 | 81.7 | T 875 W 509 M 366 | All-cause 52 | FI: Frail ≥0.5 Non-frail<0.5 | Interview | age, sex, civil status, the physical, mental, and social frailty phenotype |
Abizanda et al.,2013 [75] | Spain | 1.46 | 79.4 | T 993 W 601 M 392 | All-cause 105 | FP: Frail Prefrail Non-frail | Telephone interview and Death registry | age, sex, Barthel Index, Charlson Index |
Canada | 12 | 44 | T 14713 W 7974 M 6739 | All-cause 2020 | FI: Frail (> 0.21) Least fit (0.10–0.21) Less fit (0.03–0.10) Relatively fit (≤ 0.03) FI:0.01 | Death certificate | age, sex, education level | |
Graham et al.,2009 [78] | U.S. | 10 | 74.5 | T 1996 W 1168 M 828 | All-cause 892 | FP: Frail Prefrail Non-frail | National Death Index | age, gender, marital status, BMI, smoking status, heart attack, stroke, hypertension, cancer, hip fracture, diabetes, ADL and IADL limitations, cognitive function, depressive symptoms, self-rated health |
Avila-Funes et al.,2008 [85] | France | 4 | 74.1 | T 6078 W 3724 M 2354 | All-cause 316 | FP: Frail Prefrail Non-frail | Interviews with family/Medical records | sex, education level, income, smoking status, alcohol use, number of chronic diseases, self-reported health, Epidemiologic Studies-Depression scale score, MMSE, baseline disability (mobility, IADL, ADL) |
Ensrud et al.,2007 [41] | U.S. | 9.2 | 76.7 | W 6724 | All-cause 2520 | FP: Frail Prefrail Robust | Death certificate | age, health status, smoking, estrogen use, education, history of fracture, selected medical conditions (stroke, diabetes, hypertension, parkinsonism, dementia, coronary heart disease, COPD, nonskin cancer, fall history, depressive symptoms), cognitive function, functional status, BMI, femoral neck bone mineral density |
Woods et al.,2005 [42] | U.S. | 5.9 | NA | W 40657 | All-cause 2497 | FP: Frail Prefrail Non-frail | Medical records | age, income, education, ethnicity, health risk variables (BMI, smoking, alcohol consumption, history of hormone use, self-reported health, current healthcare provider), disability, comorbid conditions (diabetes mellitus, hypertension, depressed mood, history of hip fracture, falling, arthritis, cancer, COPD, coronary heart disease, CHF, stroke) |
Fried et al.,2001 [4] | U.S. | 7 | NA | T 5317 W 3077 M 2240 | All-cause NA | FP: Frail Prefrail Robust | Interview | age, gender, indicator for minority cohort, income, smoking status, blood pressure, fasting glucose, albumin, creatinine, carotid stenosis, history of CHF, cognitive function, major ECG abnormality, use of diuretics, problem with IADLs, self-report health measure, depression measure |
Susanto et al.,2018 [43] | Australia | 15 | NA | W 8933 | All-cause 483 | FS: Frail Robust | National Death Index | age, BMI, educational status, ability to manage on income, physical activity |
Hao et al.,2016 [79] | China | 4 | 93.7 | T 767 W 520 M 247 | All-cause 395 | FI: Severely frail (≥ 0.45) Frail (0.22–0.45) Non-frail (< 0.22) FI:0.01 | Local government records, relatives or neighbors | age, sex, education |
Theou et al.,2012 [80] | Canada | 5 | 84.6 | T 2305 W 1431 M 874 | All-cause 1003 | FI:0.1 | NA | age, sex |
Jacobs et al.,2011 [81] | Israel | 5 | 85 | T 840 W 440 M 400 | All-cause 194 | FP: Frail Prefrail Non-frail | Death certificate | MMSE, sex, educational status, ischemic heart disease, diabetes, hypertension, smoking status, self-rated health, ADL |
Lucicesare et al.,2010 [82] | Italy | 4 | 74.7 | T 1016 W 453 M 563 | All-cause 147 | FI: Frail ≥0.25 Non-frail<0.25 | Official death records | age, sex |
Searle et al.,2008 [83] | U.S. | 9 | NA | T 754 W 487 M 267 | All-cause NA | FI:0.01 | Death certificate | age, sex |
Srinonprasert et al.,2018 [84] | Thailand | 7 | 69.2 | T 8195 W 4163 M 4032 | All-cause 1284 | FI: Frail>0.25 Non-frail ≤0.25 | Death Database | NA |