Table 1 Baseline participant characteristics before propensity-score matching
|  | HI group n = 775 | Non-HI group n = 2883 | P-Value |
|---|---|---|---|
Agea, year | 74.3 ± 8.1 | 66.2 ± 9.3 | < 0.001 |
Female sex, n (%) | 300 (38.7%) | 1317 (45.7%) | < 0.001 |
Heighta, cm | 159.7 ± 8.8 | 160.1 ± 8.1 | 0.20 |
Weighta, kg | 59.2 ± 10.7 | 61.3 ± 10.7 | < 0.001 |
Body mass indexa, kg/m2 | 23.2 ± 3.4 | 23.9 ± 3.4 | < 0.001 |
Assistive devices, n (%) | |||
 Eyeglasses | 388 (50.1%) | 1809 (62.8%) | < 0.001 |
 Hearing aids | 94 (12.1%) | NA |  |
 Dental prostheses | 584 (75.4%) | 2078 (72.1%) | 0.07 |
 Crutches | 131 (16.9%) | 208 (7.2%) | < 0.001 |
Living arrangements, n (%) | < 0.001 | ||
 Home | 758 (97.8%) | 2862 (99.3%) |  |
 Nursing home | 17 (2.2%) | 21 (0.7%) |  |
Educational level, n (%) | < 0.001 | ||
 Elementary school or below | 634 (81.8%) | 1903 (66.0%) |  |
 Junior high school | 62 (8.0%) | 346 (12.0%) |  |
 Senior high school | 64 (8.3%) | 464 (16.1%) |  |
 College or above | 15 (1.9%) | 170 (5.9%) |  |
Marital status, n (%) | < 0.001 | ||
 Married/Cohabitating | 456 (58.8%) | 2081 (72.2%) |  |
 Single/Divorced/Widowed | 319 (41.2%) | 802 (27.8%) |  |
Living conditions, n (%) | 0.12 | ||
 Living alone | 86 (11.1%) | 267 (9.3%) |  |
 Living with spouse or children | 689 (88.9%) | 2616 (90.7%) |  |
Self-rated health condition, n (%) | < 0.001 | ||
 Good or very good | 158 (20.4%) | 1223 (42.4%) |  |
 Okay | 300 (38.7%) | 1022 (35.5%) |  |
 Bad or very bad | 317 (40.9%) | 638 (22.1%) |  |
Self-reported economic pressure, n (%) | Â | Â | 0.18 |
 No | 527 (68.0%) | 1987 (68.9%) |  |
 Some | 158 (20.4%) | 624 (21.6%) |  |
 Heavy | 90 (11.6%) | 272 (9.4%) |  |
Health-related behaviors, n (%) | |||
 Smoking | 215 (27.7%) | 669 (23.2%) | 0.009 |
 Alcohol | 196 (25.3%) | 894 (31.0%) | 0.22 |
 Betel nuts | 54 (7.0%) | 154 (5.3%) | 0.08 |
Exercise habits, n (%) | 0.004 | ||
 No | 288 (37.2%) | 897 (31.1%) |  |
 Exercise < 3 time/week | 57 (7.4%) | 265 (9.2%) |  |
 Exercise ≥3 times/week | 430 (55.5%) | 1721 (59.7%) |  |
Comorbidities, n (%) | |||
 Hypertension | 309 (39.9%) | 900 (31.2%) | < 0.001 |
 Diabetes mellitus | 113 (14.6%) | 385 (13.4%) | 0.38 |
 Heart disease | 171 (22.1%) | 434 (15.1%) | < 0.001 |
 Stroke | 52 (6.7%) | 86 (3.0%) | < 0.001 |
 COPD | 143 (18.5%) | 258 (9.0%) | < 0.001 |
 Arthritis | 183 (23.6%) | 468 (16.2%) | < 0.001 |
 Gastric ulcer | 169 (21.8%) | 503 (17.5%) | 0.005 |
 Hepatobiliary disease | 64 (8.3%) | 220 (7.6%) | 0.56 |
 Hip fracture | 23 (3.0%) | 41 (1.4%) | 0.004 |
 Cataract | 219 (28.3%) | 608 (21.1%) | < 0.001 |
 Chronic kidney disease | 69 (8.9%) | 230 (8.0%) | 0.40 |
 Spine spondylosis | 71 (9.2%) | 271 (9.4%) | 0.84 |
Physical and psychosocial statusa | |||
 Social support score | 15.7 ± 3.2 | 16.4 ± 3.0 | < 0.001 |
 Social participation | 0.42 ± 0.49 | 0.45 ± 0.50 | 0.14 |
 Mobility score | 2.6 ± 2.5 | 1.2 ± 1.9 | < 0.001 |
 IADL score | 0.75 ± 1.32 | 0.26 ± 0.85 | < 0.001 |
 CES-D score | 4.5 ± 5.3 | 2.8 ± 4.3 | < 0.001 |
 SPMSQ score | 8.3 ± 1.1 | 8.5 ± 0.9 | < 0.001 |
 Quality of Life score | 7.5 ± 3.1 | 8.3 ± 2.9 | < 0.001 |