Table 1 Baseline descriptive characteristics of the total study population, and pre-frail and frail participants separately

Age (mean ± SD)

76.3 ± 6.6

75.8 ± 6.5

78.0 ± 6.8

P < 0.001^a

Male gender

957 (39.5%)

767 (40.7%)

190 (35.4%)

P = 0.025^b

(I)ADL disability (18–72)^d (mean ± SD)

31.8 ± 12.0

28.6 ± 10.0

43.0 ± 11.8

P < 0.001^a

 Level of education

  low

1579 (68.9%)

1182 (66.1%)

397 (78.6%)

P < 0.001^b

  high

714 (31.1%)

606 (33.9%)

108 (21.4%)

 Income

  low

1145 (47.4%)

830 (44.1%)

315 (58.8%)

P < 0.001^b

  high

1272 (52.6%)

1051 (55.9%)

221 (41.2%)

 Informal care

  not available

224 (9.4%)

167 (8.9%)

57 (10.9%)

P = 0.185^b

  available

2167 (90.6%)

1699 (91.1%)

468 (89.1%)

 Living situation

  living alone

906 (39.2%)

668 (37.0%)

238 (46.9%)

P < 0.001^b

  not living alone

1404 (60.8%)

1135 (63.0%)

269 (53.1%)

 Mastery (7–35)^d (mean ± SD)

23.1 ± 5.9

24.2 ± 5.6

19.5 ± 5.5

P < 0.001^a

  low

1093 (49.9%)

726 (42.5%)

367 (75.8%)

P < 0.001^b

  high

1098 (50.1%)

981 (57.5%)

117 (24.2%)

 Self-management (1–6)^d (mean ± SD)

3.8 ± 0.7

3.9 ± 0.7

3.5 ± 0.8

P < 0.001^c

  low

1045 (47.1%)

713 (41.3%)

332 (66.9%)

P < 0.001^b

  high

1176 (52.9%)

1012 (58.7%)

164 (33.1%)