Table 3 Included studies reported by subjects, outcome measures, intervention, control and results
From: Cognitive and cognitive-motor interventions affecting physical functioning: A systematic review
STUDY | SUBJECTS | OUTCOME MEASURES | INTERVENTION | CONTROL | RESULTS |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cognitive Rehabilitation Interventions | |||||
Batson et al, 2006 [44] | - n = 6; community-dwelling elderly - age range: 65-80 years | - Standardized measures of balance, gait speed and balance confidence - BBS, ABC - TUG | Mental imagery plus physical practice; 6 weeks: 2x/week for 50 min | Health education plus physical practice 6 weeks: 2x/week for 50 min | - Significant results for TUG only for the group as a whole - No significant results for either group or for the group as a whole for remaining measures |
Dunsky et al, 2008 [50] | - n = 17; community-dwelling adults with hemiparetic stroke - age range: 44-79 years | - Spatiotemporal and kinematic gait parameters - Tinetti POMA - FMA - Modified FWCI | Motor imagery training; 6 weeks: 3 x/week for 20 min | None | - Spatiotemporal parameters: significant improvements in mean gait speed at baseline and follow-up; stride length, paretic and non-paretic step length increased significantly at post-intervention - Significant increase of sagittal ROM of the paretic knee joint - Significant increase of gait symmetry after intervention - Treatment effect size was moderate for most of the variables |
Hamel & Lajoie, 2005 [51] | - n = 20; older adults - age range: 65-90 years | - A/P & M/L postural oscillations - Reaction time to auditory stimuli - BBS - ABC | Mental imagery training; 6 weeks: daily practice | No involvement in any type of training | - MI-group became more stable after training, while sway of control group increased when compared to pre-test. - A/P postural oscillation significantly decreased in MI-group - Significant decrease in reaction time task for MI-group - No significant outcomes on BBS and ABC scales |
Dual-task Interventions | |||||
Shigematsu et al, 2008 [58] | - n = 63; community dwelling older adults - age range: 65-74 years | - Physical tests of balance, leg strength and coordination - Self-reported occurrence of falls or trips - Step-recording with pedometers | Square-Stepping Exercise (SSE); 12 weeks: 2x/week for 70 min | Supervised walking (W); 12 week: 1x week for 70 min | - Functional fitness of lower extremities improved more in SSE than in W - No significantly lower rate of falls per trip for SSE compared to W. |
Shigematsu et al, 2008 [59] | - n = 39; community-dwelling healthy adults - age range: 65-74 years | - Chair stands, Leg extension power, Single-leg balance with eyes closed, functional reach, standing up from a lying position, stepping with both feet, walking around two cones, 10 m-walk, Sit&Reach | Square-Stepping Exercise (SSE); 12 weeks: 2x/week for 70 min | Strength and balance training; 12 weeks: 2x/week for 70 min | - SSE: significant within-group improvement in one-leg balance - SB: Significant improvement of functional reach - Performances on remaining test were significantly better for both groups. |
Silsupadol et al, 2006 [62] | - n = 3 older adults with self-reported history of falls or concerns about impaired balance - age: 82, 90 and 93 years | - Mediolateral COM displacement und single-task (ST) and dual-task (DT) - BBS, ABC - DGI - TUG | Dual-task balance training with fixed- (FP) or variable-priority (VP); 4 weeks: 3x/week for 45 min | Single-task balance training; 4 weeks: 3x/week for 45 min | - Balance improved in all 3 participants, BBS, DGI and ABC scores increased - Time to complete TUG decreased under both conditions (participants who received DT-Training showed more improvement in TUG under DT than under ST and vice versa) - Subject who received DT-training using VP, showed improvements on other dual tasks that were not directly trained (novel task) - Follow-up (2 weeks): time to perform TUG decreased for all subjects - Follow-up (3 months): Clinical measures of balance were retained; TUG in subject with FP further improved (9%) |
- n = 21; elderly adults - mean age: 75 ± 6.1 years | - Self-selected gait speed under single and dual task conditions - Gait temporal-distance measurements - BBS, ABC - Average angle of frontal plane COM position and ankle joint center (AJC) | Dual-task balance training with fixed- (FP) or variable-priority (VP); 4 weeks: 3x/week for 45 min | Single-task balance training; 4 weeks: 3x/week for 45 min | - All participants improved gait speed under ST conditions. - DT-groups walked significantly faster under DT conditions. No significant difference in gait speed under DT conditions for ST-group - All participants improved balance under ST-conditions - ABC Scale: ST group increased their level of confidence more than DT groups - BBS Scale: improvements in BBS were comparable across training groups - Follow-up: DT-training with VP instructions demonstrated a training effect on DT-gait speed at the end of the second week of training and also after 3 months follow-up - All groups showed a significantly smaller AJC-angle after training when walking under ST conditions - Under DT-conditions reduction of AJC-angle was significant for all groups, but was greater for the VP-group than for the ST-group and FP-group - No significant effects on AJC-angle in a novel (untrained) DT-condition for all groups. | |
Vaillant et al, 2006 [66] | - n = 68; community-dwelling older women with osteoporosis - mean age: 73.5 ± 1.6 years | - TUG & TUG-DT - One Leg Balance (OLB) and OLB with concurrent task (OLB-DT) | Physical exercise while counting, memorizing or reciting (dual task); 6 weeks: 2x/week | Physical exercises (single task); 6 weeks: 2x/week | - Adding cognitive tasks did not significantly alter the effects of the exercise program - 2 weeks follow-up: Significant improvements for all outcome measures in both groups; TUG time improved more in single-task group than in dual-task group - 3 months follow-up: Improvements in TUG-DT significantly greater in dual-task group than in the single-task group |
You et al, 2009 [70] | - n = 13; older adults with history of falls - mean age: 68.3 ± 6.5 years | - Gait speed - AP-/ML-COP deviation | Cognitive Gait Intervention (CGI); 6 weeks: 5x/week for 30 min | Placebo version of CGI; 6 weeks: 5x/week for 30 min | - No significant difference in the ML-COP or AP-COP deviation measures neither in control nor experiment group; - Significant increase in gait speed in control group but not in experimental group |
Computerized Interventions | |||||
Bisson et al, 2007 [32] | - n = 24; community dwelling older adults - mean age: VR 74.4 ± 3.65 years, BF 74.4 ± 4.92 years | - Static balance - Simple auditory reaction time task - CB&M | Dynamic balance training with visual biofeedback (BF) or in virtual reality (VR); 10 weeks: 2x/week for 30 min | None | - Mean CB&M scores for both groups increased significantly from baseline to post-training and retention, no difference between groups - Static balance: no differences between groups and no training effect on variability of COP displacement; Significant task effect and interaction between directions of sway and tasks - Reaction time: no group effect; significant main effect of time; reaction time at baseline significantly higher compared to post-training and retention; both groups improved their reaction time equally |
Broeren et al, 2008 [45] | - n = 22; community dwelling persons with stroke - mean age: 67 ± 12.5 years | - Manual Ability measurements (BBT and ABILHAND) - Trail Making Test B - Kinematics of upper extremities (velocity, hand-path ratio etc.) | 3D computer game play with haptic device and unsupported upper extremities; 4 weeks: 3 x/week for 45 min | Continued participation in usual physical activities | - BBT: Increase in treatment group by 9% - ABILHAND: No significant changes in both groups - TMT-B: median time decreased for completing the task in both groups - Kinematics: Time to complete the VR task and HPR decreased significantly in treatment group - Hand trajectories are qualitatively more restrained, self-controlled, smoother and less clutters after training |
Buccello-Stout et al, 2008 [46] | - n = 16; older adults - age range: 66 - 81 years | - Time to complete an obstacle course with 13 soft obstacles - Number of penalties on obstacle course | Walking straight on a treadmill in a rotating virtual room; 4 weeks: 2 x/week for 20 min | Walking straight on a treadmill in a static virtual room; 4 weeks: 2 x/week for 20 min | - Average time scores to complete obstacle course and average penalty scores significantly decreased in experimental group after intervention and at retention (4 weeks) |
Clark et al, 2009 [47] | - n = 1; woman resident of a nursing home with unspecified balance disorders - age:89 years | - BBS, ABC - DGI - TUG - MMSE | Nintendo Wii Bowling game; 2 weeks: 3x/week for 60 min | None | - Improvements in all outcome measures - Self-reported improvements in balance, ambulation ability and confidence |
de Bruin et al, 2010 [48] | - n = 35; older adults living in a residential care facility; - mean age: CGD 85.2 ± 5.5 years, UC 86.8 ± 8.1 years | - Gait temporal-distance measurements - Dual task costs of walking - ETGUG -FES-I | Computer game dancing (CGD) plus progressive resistance training; 12 weeks: 2x/week for 45-60 min | Usual care physical intervention (UC); 12 weeks: 1x/week for 30-45 min | - DTC: Significant decrease in DTC of walking velocity and stride time in CGD-group. No significant changes in DTC of cadence and step time in both groups. - ETGUG: no significant time effect in both groups - FES-I: no significant time effect in both groups |
Deutsch et al, 2009 [49] | - n = 2; in chronic phase post-stroke patients - age: 48 and 34 years | - Gait speed - Six-minute walk test (meters) - BBS, ABC - DGI - TUG and TGU-DT | Nintendo Wii Sports and Wii Fit Programs; 4 weeks: 3x/week for 60 min | Balance and coordination activities in different conditions; 4 weeks: 3x/week for 60 min | - Gait speed increased for both participants (retained at follow-up) - Gait endurance increased modestly for both participants - DGI and ABC scores increased for both participants - TUG and TUG-DT time decreased for both participants; Control subject showed further improvement at post-test |
Hatzitaki et al, 2009 [52] | - n = 48; community-dwelling healthy older women - mean age: 70.89 ± 5.67 years | - Static postural sway data: COP displacement in A/P and M/L direction - Angular excursion of lower leg, pelvis and trunk | Balance training on platform with visual feedback in A/P or M/L direction; 4 weeks: 3x/week for 25 min | No involvement in any type of training | - Normal quiet stance: No significant changes in COP displacement and angular kinematics in either of the two training groups. - Significant effect of training on interlimb COP asymmetry in A/P-group - Sharpened Romberg Stance: Significant reduction of COP displacement in A/P-group, no adaptations in M/L-group. A/P group showed significantly decreased peak amplitude and SD of lower leg rotation in the pitch direction and of trunk's mediolateral rotation. No significant changes in the M/L-group |
Hinman, 2002 [53] | - n = 88; community-dwelling elderly - age range: 63-87 years | - BBS - MFES - Timed 50-foot walk test (TWT) - Simple reaction time | Computerized Balance Training (CBT) or Home program of balance exercises (HEP); 4 weeks: 3 x/week for 20 min | No involvement in any type of training | - Subjects in both training groups showed slight improvements in all measures. Subjects of control group improved to a lesser degree. |
Jang et al, 2005 [54] | - n = 10; patients with hemiparetic stroke - mean age: 57.1 ± 4.5 years | - BBT - FMA - Manual Function Test - Several fMRI data | VR game exercise with IREX system focusing on reaching, lifting and grasping; 4 weeks: 5x/week for 60 min | No involvement in any type of training | - Significant difference between the groups, VR-group improved in motor functions, control group did not show any change - Cortical activation was reorganized from contralesional to ipsilesional activation in the laterality index |
Kerdoncuff et al 2004 [71] | - n = 25; patients with stroke - mean age: 59.5 ± 13.5 | - FMA - Gait evaluation - Barthel Index - Measurement of functional independence (MFI) - Sway measurements on force platform | Progressive balance training with visual biofeedback plus traditional training; 3 weeks: 5x/week | Traditional training; 3 weeks: 5x/week | - Improvements in gait speed for control group, decrease for intervention group - Improvements in FMA, MFI and Barthel Index for both groups - Improvements of force platform parameters with closed eyes |
Lajoie, 2003 [55] | - n = 24; community-dwelling elderly - mean age: IG 70.3 years, CG 71.4 years | - BBS, ABC - Auditory-verbal reaction test - Postural sway data | Computerized Balance Training; 8 weeks: 2x/week for 60 min | No involvement in any type of training | - BBS: Significant difference for CBT-group after intervention - ABC: No significant changes - Significant decrease of reaction time in CBT-group after intervention - Postural sway: No significant changes in both groups |
Mumford et al, 2010 [56] | - n = 3; patients with TBI - mean age: 20.3 years | - Movement accuracy - Movement speed - Movement efficiency - BBT - MAND | Table-top VR-System for moving objects to cued locations with augmented movement feedback; 12 weeks: 1x/week for 60 min | None | - Accuracy: Improvements after intervention and maintained in 2 of 3 patients - Speed: No improvement after intervention for either hand - Efficiency: Improved performance efficiency for all participants after intervention - BBT: moderate improvements - MAND: moderate improvements |
Sackley et al, 1997 [57] | - n = 26; stroke patients - age range: 41-85 years | - Stance symmetry and sway - Rivermead Motor Assessment - Nottingham 10 Point ADL Scale | Balance training using visual feedback; 4 weeks: 3x/week for 60 min | Balance training without visual feedback; 4 weeks: 3x/week for 60 min | - Treatment group demonstrated significantly better performance when compared with controls for stance symmetry and for functional performance (ADL and Gross Function scores) - Sway values showed a tendency to greater improvement |
Srivastava et al, 2009 [63] | - n = 45; stroke patients - mean age: 45.51 ± 11.24 years | - BBS - Balance Index - Dynamic Limits of Stability scores - Walking ability - Barthel Index | Balance training on force platform with visual feedback; 4 weeks: 5x/week for 20 min | None | - Statistically significant differences at the end of training for all outcome measures - Statistically significant differences for all outcomes at 3 months follow-up |
Sugarman et al, 2009 [64] | - n = 1; woman 5 weeks after stroke - age: 86 years | - BBS - Functional Reach - TUG - Postural Stability Index (STI) - Stability Score (ST) | Nintendo Wii Fit balance training plus standard physical therapy with emphasis on functional activities; 4 × 45 min | None | - Modest improvements in BBS and Functional Reach tests - TUG time decrease - Modest improvements in postural stability tests |
Talassi et al, 2007 [65] | - n = 54; community-dwelling older adults with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) or mild dementia (MD) - age range: 42-91 years | - PPT - Basic and instrumental ADL | Computerized cognitive training (CCT), occupational therapy (OT) and behavioral training (BT); 3 weeks: 4x/week for 30-45 min | same program with physical rehabilitation program (PT) instead of CCT | - Participants with MCI showed significant improvements in PPT - Unspecific control program showed no significant effects |
Wolf et al, 1997 [67] | - n = 72; independently living older adults; - mean age: CBT 77.7 ± 6.5 years, TC 77.7 ± 5.6 years, Control Group 75.2 ± 4.9 years | - Postural stability measurements under defined conditions - Fear of Falling Questionnaire | Computerized Balance Training (CBT) or Tai Chi (TC); 15 weeks: CBT 1x/week for 60 min, TC 2x/week for 60 min | Educational intervention (ED); 15 weeks: 1x/week for 60 min | - CBT: improved postural stability - TC: no improvements in postural stability, but reduction of fear of falling occurred |
Yang et al, 2008 [68] | - n = 20; adults with stroke - age range: 30-74 years | - Walking speed -Community walk test (CWT) - Walking Ability Questionnaire (WAQ) - ABC | Virtual reality-based treadmill training; 3 weeks: 3x/week for 20 min | Treadmill training; 3 weeks: 3x/week for 20 min | - VR-Group: significant improvement in all outcomes post-training and significant improvements in walking speed, CWT and WAQ score 1 month after completion of program - CG: significant improvements in CWT post-training and in follow-up period, significant improvements of WAQ score at follow-up |
Yong Joo et al, 2010 [69] | - n = 16; rehabilitation inpatients within 3 months post-stroke - mean age: 64.5 ± 9.6 years | - FMA - Motricity Index -Modified Ashworth Scale (MAS) - Visual Analogue Scale for upper limb pain | Upper limb exercises with Nintendo Wii in addition to usual rehabilitation; 2 weeks: 6x/week for 30 min | None | - Significant improvements in the FMA and Motricity Index scores |