Table 1 Study characteristics of yoga interventions involving people with MCI and dementia

Eyre et al. (2017) [22], United States [main study];

Eyre et al. (2016) [23] & Yang et al. (2016) [24], United States [substudies]

MCI n = 81;

YG n = 38 (68.1 ± 8.7 years), 66% Female;

CG n = 41 (67.6 ± 8.0 years), 66% Female

MCI n = 55;

YG n = 14 (67.1 ± 9.5 years), 43% Female;

CG n = 11 (67.8 ± 9.7 years), 55% Female

RCT; baseline, 12 weeks, 24 weeks

RCT; baseline, 12 weeks

YG: 12-week KY involving movement, chanting, and meditation with one 60-min instructor-led class/week and daily unsupervised home practice of 12-min Kirtan Kriya (KK) meditation through a CD;

CG: 12-week evidence-based mnemonic Memory Enhancement Training with one instructor-led class/week and daily 20-min homework.

Karydaki et al. (2017) [25], Greece

MCI n = 57, 100% Female;

YG n = 16 (67.2 ± 4.54 years);

EG n = 15 (75.6 ± 4.08 years);

CG n = 18 (74.5 ± 5.46 years)

RCT; baseline, 12 weeks

YG: 12-week CY with two 45-min instructor-led classes/week involving loosening exercises, standing and relaxation postures, and breathing exercises that progressively increased in duration (from 10 to 30 sec), plus 2 hrs of cognitive activities twice/week.

EG: 12-week resistance training with two 45-min instructor-led classes/week involving lower body, upper body and core exercises with free weights, elastic bands, medicine balls, and pilates rings, plus 2 hrs of cognitive activities twice/week.

CG: instructed to refrain from any complementary exercise and received 2 hrs of cognitive activities twice/week.

Innes et al. (2012) [26], United States

MCI + Caregivers n = 10 (73.3 ± 3.9 years), 60% Female

Pre-post intervention; baseline, 8 weeks

YG: 8-week twice daily unsupervised home practice of 11-min KY meditation through a CD with one 30–45 minute in-person training session at intervention onset.

Innes et al. (2016) [27], United States

MCI + SCD n = 60 (60.6 ± 1.0 years), 85% Female;

YG n = 27 (60.9 ± 1.6 years), 87% Female;

CG n = 28 (60.2 ± 1.3), 83% Female

RCT; baseline, 12 weeks, 6 months

YG: 12-week daily unsupervised home practice of 12-min KY meditation through a CD with one 30-45 minute in-person training session at intervention onset, then optional 3 months of practice during follow-up;

CG: 12-week daily unsupervised 12-min Music Listening (ML) program with classical compositions through a CD and with eyes closed.

Newberg et al. (2010) [28], United States

MCI + SCD + AD n = 22;

YG n = 14 (64 ± 8.0 years), 57% Female;

CG n = 7 (65 ± 9.9 years), 100% Female

Nonrandomised controlled trial, two groups; baseline, 8 weeks

YG: 8-week daily unsupervised home practice of 12-min KY meditation through a CD with one video and in-person training session provided at intervention onset.

CG: 8-week daily unsupervised 12-min ML program of two Mozart compositions through a CD.

Fan & Chen (2011) [29]; Taiwan

Dementia n = 68 (75.2 ± 7.4 years), 59% Female;

YG n = 30;

CG n = 29

Cluster RCT; baseline, 12 weeks

YG: 12-week Silver yoga program with three 55-min instructor-led group classes/week involving warm-up, Hatha yoga, and relaxation activities;

CG: continued with usual activities for 12-weeks.

Litchke et al. (2012) [30]; United States [quantitative study]

Litchke et al. (2014) [31]; United States

[qualitative study]

AD n = 27 (69–98 years);

YG n = 19, 79% Female

AD n = 39;

YG n = 26 (69–98), 73% Female

Pre-post intervention; baseline, 10 weeks

YG: 10-week Lakshmi Voelker CY with two instructor-led classes/week that progressed from 30 to 55-min and involved warmup, sun salutation, seven sitting movements, warrior, balance self-massage, seated spinal, and relaxation poses.

McCaffrey et al. (2014) [32]; United States

AD n = 9 (62-93 years), 66% Female

Repeated measures intervention; baseline, 4 weeks, 8 weeks, 12 weeks

YG: 8-week Sit ‘N’ Fit CY with two instructor-led 45-mins classes/week involving breath exercises, seated stretching poses, and relaxation activities.

Park et al. (2019) [33]; United States

[quantitative study]

AD + LBD + PWD + mixed types n = 31 (84.3 ± 7.7 years), 42% Female;

YG n = 10;

EG n = 11;

CG n = 10

Cluster RCT; baseline, 6 weeks, 12 weeks

YG: 12-week Hatha-based CY with two instructor-led 45-min classes/week involving breathing, physical postures, and guided relaxation.

EG: 12-week chair based exercise with two instructor-led 45-min classes/week involving a warm-up and stretches, resistant exercises with a Theraband, and cool down exercises.

CG: 12-week ML program with two instructor-led 45-min classes/week involving welcome song and orientation, music-facilitated movement, cognitive/sensory stimulation, and a goodbye song.

Park et al. (2020) [34]; United States

[qualitative study]

AD + LBD n = 9 (84.2 ± 10.1 years), 67% Female;

YG n = 4 (86.5 ± 7.1 years), 100% Female;

EG n = 2 (87.0 ± 8.5 years); 75% Female;

CG n = 3 (79.3 ± 15.5 years), 33% Female

Rodríguez Salazar et al. (2017) [35]; Colombia

AD n = 65 (76.9 ± 11.7 years), 66% Female;

YG n = 35

Repeated measures intervention; baseline, 16-weeks, 40 weeks

YG: 16-week Hatha yoga with two instructor-led 60 min classes/week involving breath, warm-up, posture, and relaxation exercises.