| Overall cohort | Females | Males | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Odds ratio | 95% CI | p value | Odds ratio | 95% CI | p value | Odds ratio | 95% CI | p value | |
Gender | Â | Â | 0.224 | Â | Â | Â | Â | Â | Â |
 Male (ref) | 1.00 |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
 Female | 0.80 | 0.55, 1.15 |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Age (year) | 1.07 | 1.03, 1.10 | < 0.001 | 1.06 | 1.02, 1.10 | 0.003 | 1.08 | 1.02, 1.13 | 0.005 |
Age | Â | Â | 0.003 | Â | Â | 0.092 | Â | Â | 0.009 |
  < 75 years (ref) | 1.00 |  |  | 1.00 |  |  | 1.00 |  |  |
  ≥ 75 years | 1.79 | 1.23, 2.62 |  | 1.50 | 0.94, 2.41 |  | 2.34 | 1.23, 4.43 |  |
MUST Score | 2.54 | 1.75, 3.70 | < 0.001 | 2.76 | 1.72, 4.44 | < 0.001 | 2.25 | 1.23, 4.14 | 0.009 |
MUST risk |  |  | < 0.001 |  |  | < 0.001 |  |  | 0.001 |
 Medium (ref) | 1.00 |  |  | 1.00 |  |  | 1.00 |  |  |
 High | 3.46 | 2.31, 5.18 |  | 3.70 | 2.24, 6.13 |  | 3.09 | 1.57, 6.09 |  |
Ethnicity | Â | Â | 0.187 | Â | Â | 0.603 | Â | Â | 0.252 |
 Chinese (ref) | 1.00 |  |  | 1.00 |  |  | 1.00 |  |  |
 Non-Chinese | 1.49 | 0.83, 2.68 |  | 1.24 | 0.55, 2.80 |  | 1.66 | 0.70, 3.93 |  |
Education |  |  | 0.002 |  |  | < 0.001 |  |  | 0.372 |
 No formal education (ref) | 1.00 |  |  | 1.00 |  |  | 1.00 |  |  |
 Secondary level or equivalent | 0.91 | 0.60, 1.40 | 0.683 | 0.91 | 0.53, 1.56 | 0.738 | 0.92 | 0.45, 1.87 | 0.816 |
 A level or equivalent | 0.42 | 0.26, 0.70 | < 0.001 | 0.29 | 0.15, 0.54 | < 0.001 | 0.87 | 0.35, 2.14 | 0.759 |
 University and above | 0.49 | 0.26, 0.93 | 0.028 | 0.54 | 0.23, 1.26 | 0.155 | 0.43 | 0.17, 1.14 | 0.090 |
Housing type | Â | Â | 0.108 | Â | Â | 0.188 | Â | Â | 0.085 |
 HDB 1–3 room flats (ref) | 1.00 |  |  | 1.00 |  |  | 1.00 |  |  |
 HDB 4–5 room flats | 0.64 | 0.42, 0.97 | 0.035 | 0.68 | 0.41, 1.13 | 0.135 | 0.57 | 0.28, 1.18 | 0.129 |
 Private properties | 0.73 | 0.45, 1.20 | 0.220 | 1.04 | 0.56, 1.94 | 0.897 | 0.39 | 0.17, 0.90 | 0.028 |
Smoking status |  |  | 0.108 |  |  | 0.425 |  |  | 0.296 |
 Non-smoker (ref) | 1.00 |  |  | 1.00 |  |  | 1.00 |  |  |
 Past smoker | 0.96 | 0.59, 1.58 | 0.887 | 0.80 | 0.20, 3.15 | 0.751 | 0.84 | 0.44, 1.58 | 0.582 |
 Daily / occasional smoker | 2.37 | 1.05, 5.36 | 0.037 | 3.77 | 0.48, 29.52 | 0.206 | 1.83 | 0.70, 4.75 | 0.215 |
Alcohol consumption |  |  | 0.414 |  |  | 0.759 |  |  | 0.476 |
 None (ref) | 1.00 |  |  | 1.00 |  |  | 1.00 |  |  |
 Less than once a month | 0.75 | 0.44, 1.28 | 0.287 | 0.79 | 0.40, 1.54 | 0.486 | 0.67 | 0.28, 1.64 | 0.380 |
  ≥ once a month | 1.24 | 0.66, 2.35 | 0.504 | 0.84 | 0.29, 2.43 | 0.754 | 1.34 | 0.58, 3.09 | 0.490 |
Number of prescribed drugs currently taking | Â | Â | 0.137 | Â | Â | 0.488 | Â | Â | 0.172 |
 0 (ref) | 1.00 |  |  | 1.00 |  |  | 1.00 |  |  |
 1–5 | 1.43 | 0.97, 2.12 | 0.072 | 1.24 | 0.76, 2.02 | 0.387 | 1.85 | 0.96, 3.57 | 0.065 |
  > 5 | 1.57 | 0.89, 2.78 | 0.120 | 1.52 | 0.73, 3.14 | 0.261 | 1.67 | 0.66, 4.20 | 0.279 |
Modified Barthel Index score | 1.02 | 0.95, 1.09 | 0.586 | 1.01 | 0.94, 1.09 | 0.719 | 1.03 | 0.89, 1.21 | 0.671 |
Physical Activity Scale for the Elderly score | 1.00 | 0.99, 1.00 | 0.002 | 1.00 | 0.99, 1.00 | 0.014 | 1.00 | 0.99, 1.00 | 0.051 |
Total Charlson Comorbidity score | 1.03 | 0.56, 1.92 | 0.916 | 1.25 | 0.43, 3.65 | 0.689 | 0.87 | 0.41, 1.86 | 0.722 |
Body weight (kg) | 0.91 | 0.88, 0.93 | < 0.001 | 0.87 | 0.83, 0.92 | < 0.001 | 0.81 | 0.75,0 .87 | < 0.001 |
BMI (kg/m2) | 0.53 | 0.45, 0.61 | < 0.001 | 0.55 | 0.46, 0.66 | < 0.001 | 0.48 | 0.37, 0.63 | < 0.001 |
BMI |  |  | < 0.001 |  |  | < 0.001 |  |  | < 0.001 |
  < 18.5 kg/m2 (ref) | 1.00 |  |  | 1.00 |  |  | 1.00 |  |  |
 18.5–24.9 kg/m2 | 0.25 | 0.16, 0.38 | < 0.001 | 0.23 | 0.14, 0.40 | < 0.001 | 0.28 | 0.14, 0.56 | < 0.001 |
Fat mass (kg) | 0.97 | 0.92, 1.02 | 0.220 | 0.96 | 0.90, 1.03 | 0.261 | 1.03 | 0.91, 1.15 | 0.667 |
Bone mass (100 g) | 0.83 | 0.79, 0.88 | < 0.001 | 0.73 | 0.66, 0.80 | < 0.001 | 0.52 | 0.43, 0.63 | < 0.001 |
Mid upper arm circumference (cm) | 0.78 | 0.72, 0.84 | < 0.001 | 0.77 | 0.69, 0.85 | < 0.001 | 0.73 | 0.64, 0.84 | < 0.001 |
Calf circumference (cm) | 0.68 | 0.62, 0.74 | < 0.001 | 0.65 | 0.58, 0.73 | < 0.001 | 0.63 | 0.53, 0.75 | < 0.001 |
25-hydroxyvitamin D (μg/L) | 1.00 | 0.98, 1.02 | 0.906 | 1.00 | 0.98, 1.03 | 0.676 | 0.99 | 0.97, 1.02 | 0.549 |
25-hydroxyvitamin D status |  |  | 0.017 |  |  | 0.021 |  |  | 0.413 |
 Sufficient, 30 – < 100 μg/L (ref) | 1.00 |  |  | 1.00 |  |  | 1.00 |  |  |
 Insufficient, 20 – < 30 μg/L | 0.63 | 0.43, 0.93 | 0.019 | 0.53 | 0.32, 0.88 | 0.014 | 0.85 | 0.45, 1.58 | 0.602 |
 Deficient, < 20 μg/L | 1.16 | 0.68, 1.98 | 0.589 | 0.99 | 0.52, 1.90 | 0.985 | 1.72 | 0.61, 4.84 | 0.308 |
Pre-albumin (mg/dL) | 1.03 | 0.99, 1.07 | 0.197 | 0.98 | 0.93, 1.03 | 0.451 | 1.08 | 1.02, 1.15 | 0.013 |
Creatinine (μmol/L) | 1.00 | 0.99, 1.01 | 0.601 | 0.99 | 0.97, 1.00 | 0.056 | 1.00 | 0.99, 1.01 | 0.773 |
Dietary protein intake (g/d) | 0.98 | 0.97, 0.99 | < 0.001 | 0.98 | 0.97, 1.00 | 0.016 | 0.97 | 0.95, 0.99 | 0.003 |
Total energy intake (kcal/d) | 1.00 | 1.00, 1.00 | 0.004 | 1.00 | 1.00, 1.00 | 0.143 | 1.00 | 1.00, 1.00 | < 0.001 |
Energy-adjusted protein intake (g/d) | 0.98 | 0.97, 1.00 | 0.041 | 0.98 | 0.96, 1.00 | 0.052 | 0.99 | 0.96, 1.02 | 0.414 |
Leg strength (kg) | 0.95 | 0.91, 0.99 | 0.007 | 0.96 | 0.91, 1.01 | 0.090 | 0.92 | 0.86, 0.98 | 0.007 |
Handgrip endurance (s) | 1.00 | 0.99, 1.00 | 0.017 | 1.00 | 0.99, 1.00 | 0.114 | 0.99 | 0.99, 1.00 | 0.047 |
Total SPPB score | 0.81 | 0.73, 0.90 | < 0.001 | 0.84 | 0.75, 0.95 | 0.005 | 0.74 | 0.61, 0.90 | 0.002 |
Total balance test score | 0.71 | 0.52, 0.97 | 0.034 | 0.79 | 0.56, 1.11 | 0.176 | 0.43 | 0.18, 1.01 | 0.053 |
5-time chair stand test score | 0.72 | 0.61, 0.85 | < 0.001 | 0.77 | 0.63, 0.94 | 0.011 | 0.65 | 0.48, 0.86 | 0.003 |
Gait speed test score | 0.74 | 0.59, 0.92 | 0.007 | 0.74 | 0.56, 0.97 | 0.028 | 0.72 | 0.49, 1.08 | 0.114 |