Table 2 Characteristics of participants by sarcopenic status

Age (year)

73.4 ± 0.3

71.5 ± 0.3

74.0 ± 0.3

< 0.001

71.3 ± 0.5

73.5 ± 0.4

0.003

71.9 ± 0.8

74.7 ± 0.5

0.004

Age category, n (%)

0.002

0.091

0.008

  < 75 years

425 (61)

117 (71)

308 (58)

77 (71)

200 (62)

40 (71)

108 (52)

  ≥ 75 years

269 (39)

47 (29)

222 (42)

31 (29)

121 (38)

16 (29)

101 (48)

MUST score

1.5 ± 0.02

1.3 ± 0.04

1.6 ± 0.03

< 0.001

1.3 ± 0.05

1.6 ± 0.04

< 0.001

1.3 ± 0.08

1.6 ± 0.04

0.007

MUST risk category, n (%)

< 0.001

< 0.001

< 0.001

 Medium (1)

391 (56)

127 (77)

264 (50)

84 (78)

156 (49)

43 (77)

108 (52)

 High (≥ 2)

303 (44)

37 (23)

266 (50)

24 (22)

165 (51)

13 (23)

101 (48)

Ethnicity, n (%)

0.184

0.602

0.248

 Chinese

610 (88)

149 (91)

461 (87)

100 (93)

292 (91)

49 (88)

169 (81)

 Non-Chinese

84 (12)

15 (9)

69 (13)

8 (7)

29 (9)

7 (13)

40 (19)

Highest level of education, n (%)

0.001

< 0.001

0.355

 No formal education

243 (35)

47 (29)

196 (37)

30 (28)

122 (38)

17 (30)

74 (35)

 Secondary level or equivalent

284 (41)

59 (36)

225 (43)

38 (35)

141 (44)

21 (38)

84 (40)

    A level or equivalent

108 (16)

39 (24)

69 (13)

30 (28)

35 (11)

9 (16)

34 (16)

 University and above

58 (8)

19 (12)

39 (7)

10 (9)

22 (7)

9 (16)

17 (8)

Housing type, n (%)

0.106

0.186

0.079

 HDB 1–3 room flats

227 (33)

43 (26)

184 (35)

30 (28)

106 (33)

13 (23)

78 (37)

 HDB 4–5 room flats

314 (45)

84 (51)

230 (43)

56 (52)

134 (42)

28 (50)

96 (46)

 Private properties

153 (22)

37 (23)

116 (22)

22 (20)

81 (25)

15 (27)

35 (17)

Smoking status, n (%)

0.082

0.395

0.299

 Non-smoker

537 (77)

132 (80)

405 (76)

104 (96)

303 (94)

28 (50)

102 (49)

 Past smoker

99 (14)

25 (15)

74 (14)

3 (3)

7 (2)

22 (39)

67 (32)

    Daily / occasional smoker

58 (8)

7 (4)

51 (10)

1 (1)

11 (3)

6 (11)

40 (19)

Alcohol consumption, n (%)

0.411

0.758

0.471

 No alcohol

552 (80)

129 (79)

423 (80)

89 (82)

274 (85)

40 (71)

149 (71)

  < once a month

76 (11)

22 (13)

54 (10)

14 (13)

34 (11)

8 (14)

20 (10)

  ≥ once a month

66 (10)

13 (8)

53 (10)

5 (5)

13 (4)

8 (14)

40 (19)

Physical Activity Scale for the Elderly score

109.8 ± 2.4

123.0 ± 5.1

105.7 ± 2.7

0.002

119.4 ± 5.3

104.0 ± 3.1

0.013

129.8 ± 10.9

108.4 ± 4.7

0.048

Modified Barthel Index score

99.5 ± 0.1

99.4 ± 0.3

99.6 ± 0.1

0.584

99.4 ± 0.4

99.5 ± 0.1

0.718

99.6 ± 0.3

99.7 ± 0.1

0.670

Total Charlson Comorbidity score

0.07 ± 0.01

0.07 ± 0.02

0.07 ± 0.01

0.915

0.04 ± 0.02

0.05 ± 0.01

0.689

0.13 ± 0.05

0.11 ± 0.03

0.723

Number of days admitted to hospital in last 6 months

0.64 ± 0.12

0.42 ± 0.12

0.71 ± 0.16

0.319

0.25 ± 0.13

0.58 ± 0.18

0.289

0.75 ± 0.26

0.89 ± 0.28

0.798

Number of prescribed drugs, n (%)

0.135

0.486

0.167

 0

195 (28)

56 (34)

139 (26)

35 (32)

87 (27)

21 (38)

52 (25)

 1–5

396 (57)

87 (53)

309 (58)

60 (56)

185 (58)

27 (48)

124 (59)

  ≥ 5

103 (15)

21 (13)

82 (15)

13 (12)

49 (15)

8 (14)

33 (16)

25-hydroxyvitamin D status, n (%)

0.027

0.022

0.542

 Deficient < 20 μg/L

126 (18)

23 (14)

103 (19)

18 (17)

71 (22)

5 (9)

32 (15)

 Insufficient 20 – < 30 μg/L

285 (41)

83 (51)

202 (38)

58 (54)

123 (38)

25 (45)

79 (38)

 Sufficient 30 –100 μg/L

282 (41)

58 (35)

224 (42)

32 (30)

127 (40)

26 (46)

97 (46)

 Possible toxicity > 100 μg/L

1 (0)

0

1 (0)

0

0

0

1 (0)

25-hydroxyvitamin D (μg/L)

28.7 ± 0.37

28.6 ± 0.71

28.7 ± 0.43

0.906

27.2 ± 0.85

27.6 ± 0.52

0.677

31.3 ± 1.21

30.4 ± 0.75

0.550

Pre-albumin (mg/dL)

24.1 ± 0.17

23.7 ± 0.35

24.2 ± 0.20

0.197

23.8 ± 0.42

23.4 ± 0.23

0.451

23.5 ± 0.63

25.4 ± 0.35

0.011

Creatinine (μmol/L)

73.1 ± 0.84

73.9 ± 1.66

72.8 ± 0.97

0.602

65.6 ± 1.49

62.5 ± 0.80

0.053

89.7 ± 2.94

88.7 ± 1.59

0.774

Height (cm)

156.8 ± 0.33

157.4 ± 0.71

156.6 ± 0.37

0.308

152.8 ± 0.67

152.3 ± 0.36

0.451

166.3 ± 0.75

163.3 ± 0.45

0.002

Body weight (kg)

45.92 ± 0.24

48.84 ± 0.50

45.02 ± 0.26

< 0.001

45.94 ± 0.44

42.54 ± 0.29

< 0.001

54.42 ± 0.77

48.82 ± 0.36

< 0.001

BMI (kg/m²)

18.62 ± 0.06

19.66 ± 0.12

18.30 ± 0.07

< 0.001

19.67 ± 0.14

18.32 ± 0.09

< 0.001

19.66 ± 0.21

18.27 ± 0.10

< 0.001

BMI category, n (%)

< 0.001

< 0.001

< 0.001

 Underweight (< 18.5)

282 (41)

30 (18)

252 (48)

19 (18)

154 (48)

11 (20)

98 (47)

 Normal weight (18.5–24.9)

411 (59)

133 (81)

278 (52)

88 (81)

167 (52)

45 (80)

111 (53)

 Overweight (25–29.9)

1 (0)

1 (< 1)

0

1 (1)

0

0

0

 Obese (≥ 30.0)

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Mid-upper arm circumference (cm)

23.04 ± 0.09

24.10 ± 0.19

22.72 ± 0.10

< 0.001

23.61 ± 0.21

22.28 ± 0.13

< 0.001

25.05 ± 0.35

23.38 ± 0.15

< 0.001

Calf circumference (cm)

30.81 ± 0.10

32.45 ± 0.19

30.31 ± 0.11

< 0.001

31.94 ± 0.21

29.68 ± 0.14

< 0.001

33.44 ± 0.34

31.28 ± 0.15

< 0.001

Fat mass (kg)

8.54 ± 0.13

8.82 ± 0.28

8.45 ± 0.14

0.220

10.09 ± 0.31

9.70 ± 0.17

0.261

6.37 ± 0.40

6.54 ± 0.17

0.669

Muscle mass (kg)

35.40 ± 0.23

37.86 ± 0.52

34.64 ± 0.25

< 0.001

33.88 ± 0.31

31.12 ± 0.18

< 0.001

45.54 ± 0.56

40.05 ± 0.29

< 0.001

Bone mass (kg)

1.98 ± 0.01

2.16 ± 0.03

1.92 ± 0.02

< 0.001

1.97 ± 0.02

1.72 ± 0.02

< 0.001

2.51 ± 0.03

2.23 ± 0.02

< 0.001

Dietary protein intake (g/d)

52.2 ± 0.54

55.6 ± 1.13

51.1 ± 0.61

< 0.001

53.3 ± 1.43

49.5 ± 0.78

0.015

59.9 ± 1.71

53.7 ± 0.94

0.002

Total energy intake (kcal/d)

1112 ± 10.8

1168 ± 22.1

1094 ± 12.2

0.004

1098 ± 27.1

1052 ± 15.6

0.142

1303 ± 31.3

1159 ± 18.9

< 0.001

Energy-adjusted protein intake (g/d)

52.2 ± 0.4

52.9 ± 0.4

52.1 ± 0.2

0.047

52.7 ± 0.5

51.8 ± 0.3

0.094

53.3 ± 0.7

52.5 ± 0.3

0.237

ASMI (kg/m²)

5.73 ± 0.03

6.34 ± 0.06

5.55 ± 0.03

< 0.001

5.91 ± 0.04

5.13 ± 0.02

< 0.001

7.17 ± 0.07

6.19 ± 0.04

< 0.001

Handgrip strength (kg)

17.4 ± 0.2

18.9 ± 0.6

16.9 ± 0.2

< 0.001

15.6 ± 0.4

13.9 ± 0.2

< 0.001

25.2 ± 0.9

21.5 ± 0.4

< 0.001

Handgrip endurance (s)

71.5 ± 2.0

80.2 ± 5.1

68.8 ± 2.1

0.015

77.9 ± 6.6

68.3 ± 2.7

0.111

84.4 ± 7.6

69.7 ± 3.2

0.044

Leg strength (kg)

12.0 ± 0.2

12.9 ± 0.4

11.8 ± 0.2

0.007

11.8 ± 0.4

11.0 ± 0.2

0.089

14.9 ± 0.7

12.9 ± 0.3

0.005

SPPB score

9.2 ± 0.1

9.8 ± 0.2

9.1 ± 0.1

< 0.001

9.7 ± 0.2

9.1 ± 0.1

0.005

9.9 ± 0.2

9.1 ± 0.1

0.002

4-m usual gait speed (m/s)

0.87 ± 0.01

0.94 ± 0.02

0.85 ± 0.01

< 0.001

0.93 ± 0.03

0.84 ± 0.01

0.001

0.95 ± 0.04

0.86 ± 0.02

0.010

5-time chair stand test duration (s)

15.7 ± 0.2

14.7 ± 0.41

16.1 ± 0.23

0.003

14.8 ± 0.5

15.7 ± 0.3

0.038

14.5 ± 0.6

16.2 ± 0.4

0.029