Table 4 Hierarchical binary logistic regression for smoking

1. Demographic

 Gender

  Male

–

–

–

  Female

0.02 (0.01–0.07)***

0.02 (0.01–0.07)***

0.02 (0.01–0.05)***

 Age

  60 – 70

–

–

–

  71 – 80

0.64 (0.32–1.27)

0.69 (0.34–1.37)

0.76 (0.36–1.57)

  81 – 100

0.31 (0.08–0.91)*

0.24 (0.06–0.72)*

0.21 (0.05–0.71)*

 Education

  Did not attend school

–

–

–

  Primary school

0.98 (0.34–3.07)

0.81 (0.28–2.59)

0.59 (0.18–2.01)

  Secondary school

0.93 (0.32–2.98)

0.78 (0.26–2.54)

0.81 (0.25–2.82)

  University

0.52 (0.12–2.09)

0.41 (0.09–1.72)

0.34 (0.07–1.58)

 Flat type

  3-room

–

–

–

  4/5-room

0.73 (0.35–1.50)

0.70 (0.32–1.49)

1.52 (0.62–3.80)

2. Health status

 Multimorbidity

  None

–

–

  1 or 2

2.94 (1.31–6.86)*

3.57 (1.51–8.89)**

  3 or more

1.27 (0.55–3.01)

1.00 (0.40–2.49)

 Psychological distress

0.96 (0.89–1.03)

0.93 (0.86–1.00)

 Social networks

1.01 (0.95–1.07)

1.00 (0.94–1.06)

 Community attachment

0.96 (0.86–1.07)

0.95 (0.85–1.06)

3. Built environment

 Park distance

1.28 (1.11–1.50)**

 Kopitiam distance

0.59 (0.37–0.91)*

McFadden’s Pseudo R²

0.249

0.274

0.328

∆ R²

–

0.025

0.054