Fig. 1

Investigation scenario for this study using the Gait Real-time Analysis Interactive Lab (A); Experimental protocol of the trip-like perturbation training: the protocol consisted of two sessions of shod and barefoot walking, for a total of four trials. Each session started with a 6-min familiarization during which the participant’s self-selected speed was recorded. The first trial was performed by walking shod at a self-selected speed for 3 min, and the second trial was performed with 6 blocks of trip perturbation with an interval of 15–20 s between each. The third and fourth trials of barefoot walking were performed with the exact process as shod walking (B); Schematic diagram of spatiotemporal parameters of the gait cycle, trip perturbation occurrence step, and the first recovery step (C); Trip perturbation is where the belt decelerates at 3 m/s.² at normal gait speed until the speed is reduced by almost 1.2 m/s and held for 300 ms, and then accelerates to normal gait speed. Schematic diagrams are the curves generated for participant with an average gait speed of 1.35 m/s (shod, black dashed line) and 1.32 m/s (barefoot, gray solid line) with the x and y axes representing the time and speed offset, respectively (D)