Table 1 Descriptive statistics of study participants

Mean age, (years)

73.3 ± 6.5

74.7 ± 7.0

73.4 ± 6.5

< 0.001

Body mass index (kg/m²)

23.6 ± 2.6

23.1 ± 2.7

23.6 ± 2.6

< 0.001

Gender, n (%)

0.013

 Male

3654 (40.4)

317 (36.1)

3971 (40.0)

 Female

5388 (59.6)

561 (63.9)

5949 (60.0)

Marriage status

< 0.001

 Never married

35 (0.4)

6 (0.7)

41 (0.4)

 Married with spouse

5443 (60.2)

406 (46.2)

5849 (59.0)

 Married without spouse

3564 (39.4)

466 (53.1)

4030 (40.6)

Educational background, n (%)

< 0.001

 Elementary or less

3969 (43.9)

463 (52.7)

4431 (44.7)

 Middle/high school

4590 (50.8)

394 (44.9)

4984 (50.2)

 College or higher

484 (5.4)

21 (2.4)

505 (5.1)

Smoking status, n (%)

0.154

 Never smoked

8062 (89.2)

769 (87.6)

8831 (89.0)

 Current/past smokers

980 (10.8)

109 (12.4)

1089(11.0)

Alcohol intake (times/week)

0.212

 0

7783 (86.1)

740 (84.3)

8523 (85.9)

 1–6

1159 (12.8)

129 (14.7)

1288 (13.0)

 > 7

100 (1.1)

9 (1.0)

109 (1.1)

Multi-morbidity, n (%)

< 0.001

 None

1598 (20.7)

80 (10.7)

1678 (19.8)

 Single

2678 (34.7)

244 (32.8)

2922 (34.5)

 Multiple

3451 (44.7)

421 (56.5)

3872 (45.7)

Physical activity, n (%)

< 0.001

 Sufficient

4802 (53.1)

385 (43.8)

5187 (52.3)

 Insufficient

4240 (46.9)

493 (56.2)

4733 (47.7)

Lower body muscle strength, n (%)

< 0.001

 Good

6781 (78.5)

504 (61.0)

7285 (77.0)

 Poor

1853 (21.5)

322 (39.0)

2175 (23.0)