Table 2 Anthropometric characteristics, step length, physical activity, nutrients uptakes, and cardiorespiratory fitness variables among walking and control groups at baseline (T0), 12-week (T12), 24-week (T24) and 12-week retention (R12)

Body mass (kg)

NW

57.7 ± 8.1

57.0 ± 8.0

56.3 ± 7.4

57.1 ± 7.2

< 0.001

η² = 0.009

0.204

η² = 0.058

0.010

η² = 0.006

[N.A.]

PW

59.0 ± 4.6

57.8 ± 4.5

55.2 ± 3.8

57.1 ± 3.8

MW

60.6 ± 5.3

60.1 ± 4.7

60.1 ± 4.7

61.2 ± 4.7

CTRL

59.3 ± 4.7

59.5 ± 4.9

60.1 ± 5.2

61.5 ± 5.3

Lean mass (kg)

NW

21.8 ± 3.2

21.9 ± 3.3

21.8 ± 3.2

21.8 ± 3.2

0.095

η² = 0.012

0.193

η² = 0.050

0.337

η² = 0.003

PW

22.5 ± 2.9

21.9 ± 2.7

23.7 ± 3.1

23.6 ± 3.0

MW

21.9 ± 2.7

22.0 ± 3.4

22.3 ± 2.3

21.9 ± 2.2

CTRL

20.7 ± 1.1

20.8 ± 1.2

20.8 ± 1.2

20.8 ± 1.1

Fat ratio (%)

NW

31.2 ± 4.1

31.0 ± 4.1

31.2 ± 4.1

32.9 ± 4.2

< 0.001

η² = 0.024

0.102

η² = 0.064

< 0.001

η² = 0.018

[N.A.]

PW

31.0 ± 4.2

31.8 ± 3.8

30.6 ± 4.4

31.1 ± 4.5

MW

33.0 ± 3.1

30.1 ± 5.0

33.5 ± 3.1

33.8 ± 3.1

CTRL

33.8 ± 4.0

34.2 ± 4.3

34.5 ± 4.8

34.9 ± 4.8

Waist circumference (cm)

NW

78.9 ± 8.5

78.6 ± 8.3

78.5 ± 8.4

78.9 ± 8.4

0.011

η² = 0.016

0.818

η² = 0.011

0.589

η² = 0.001

PW

76.2 ± 7.0

80.1 ± 5.9

77.6 ± 6.1

77.7 ± 6.1

MW

79.6 ± 7.2

76.1 ± 6.3

79.5 ± 6.2

80.0 ± 6.7

CTRL

80.8 ± 7.0

80.1 ± 6.6

80.5 ± 6.5

80.6 ± 6.5

Hip circumference (cm)

NW

95.8 ± 4.3

93.9 ± 5.1

93.9 ± 4.9

94.5 ± 5.1

0.058

η² = 0.012

0.564

η² = 0.023

0.589

η² = 0.001

PW

93.2 ± 3.4

95.3 ± 4.8

94.1 ± 5.1

94.3 ± 4.8

MW

95.8 ± 4.3

93.2 ± 5.1

95.2 ± 3.8

94.6 ± 4.4

CTRL

95.9 ± 5.7

96.0 ± 5.6

96.2 ± 5.5

96.5 ± 5.6

Step length (m/step)

NW

0.4 ± 0.01

0.5 ± 0.01

0.5 ± 0.02

0.5 ± 0.02

< 0.001

η² = 0.327

< 0.001

η² = 0.266

[N.A.]

< 0.001

η² = 0.288

[N.A.]

PW

0.4 ± 0.02

0.5 ± 0.02

0.6 ± 0.02

0.4 ± 0.02

MW

0.4 ± 0.01

0.4 ± 0.01

0.4 ± 0.01

0.4 ± 0.01

CTRL

0.4 ± 0.01

0.4 ± 0.01

0.4 ± 0.01

0.4 ± 0.03

Physical activity level

(MET-min/week)

NW

1490.7 ± 313.8

1425.3 ± 314.3

1452.7 ± 347.4

1484.3 ± 311.8

0.710

η² = 0.020

0.89

η² = 0.002

0.98

η² = 0.001

PW

1447.7 ± 371.2

1540.5 ± 277.8

1545.0 ± 278.4

1405.8 ± 327.4

MW

1531.0 ± 279.7

1513.6 ± 242.2

1492.1 ± 238.3

1443.7 ± 338.2

CTRL

1350.6 ± 305.5

1437.0 ± 411.4

1490.8 ± 378.1

1544.1 ± 312.7

Dietary intake (kcal)

NW

2702.7 ± 1.5

2727.9 ± 1.5

2759.9 ± 1.5

2393.9 ± 1.5

0.150

η² = 0.016

0.514

η² = 0.022

0.250

η² = 0.005

PW

2702.8 ± 1.5

2727.9 ± 1.5

2759.9 ± 1.5

2394.0 ± 1.5

MW

2703.1 ± 1.5

2728.1 ± 1.5

2760.1 ± 1.5

2393.7 ± 1.5

CTRL

2703.2 ± 1.5

2727.7 ± 1.5

2759.7 ± 1.5

2394.0 ± 1.4

Carbohydrate intake (g/day)

NW

360.2 ± 8.0

363.8 ± 8.0

365.6 ± 8.0

353.5 ± 8.0

0.843

η² = 0.001

0.816

η² = 0.012

0.496

η² = 0.001

PW

368.4 ± 4.1

372.0 ± 4.1

373.8 ± 4.1

361.7 ± 4.1

MW

360.5 ± 7.6

364.1 ± 7.6

365.9 ± 7.6

353.8 ± 7.6

CTRL

358.6 ± 7.5

362.3 ± 7.4

364.1 ± 7.4

352.0 ± 7.4

Fat intake (g/day)

NW

95.8 ± 2.3

92.1 ± 3.8

92.9 ± 3.8

67.7 ± 3.8

0.240

η² = 0.027

0.336

η² = 0.020

0.225

η² = 0.010

PW

96.4 ± 1.5

95.7 ± 1.6

96.5 ± 1.6

71.3 ± 1.6

MW

95.6 ± 1.6

94.6 ± 1.6

95.4 ± 1.6

70.2 ± 1.6

CTRL

94.7 ± 1.3

89.8 ± 2.6

90.6 ± 2.6

65.4 ± 2.6

Protein intake

(g/day)

NW

90.8 ± 1.8

90.3 ± 1.4

95.6 ± 2.2

76.0 ± 2.2

0.441

η² = 0.017

0.401

η² = 0.021

0.964

η² = 0.0002

PW

91.2 ± 1.3

94.0 ± 1.5

97.7 ± 1.1

78.1 ± 1.1

MW

90.8 ± 1.4

93.7 ± 1.3

95.8 ± 1.5

76.2 ± 1.5

CTRL

90.2 ± 1.4

91.5 ± 1.3

95.7 ± 1.6

76.1 ± 1.6

Systolic blood pressure

(SBP, mmHg)

NW

120.4 ± 15.5

120.8 ± 14.5

119.6 ± 12.6

145.2 ± 22.0

0.036

η² = 0.009

0.040

η² = 0.093

< 0.001

η² = 0.015

[R12 > T0,T12,T24]

PW

122.1 ± 17.3

116.8 ± 16.2

113.9 ± 11.0

138.7 ± 20.8

MW

122.1 ± 16.1

119.5 ± 12.0

119.5 ± 12.0

147.0 ± 12.0

CTRL

132.5 ± 18.4

131.1 ± 17.1

130.8 ± 11.9

152.1 ± 22.3

Diastolic blood pressure (DBP, mmHg)

NW

74.6 ± 8.5

75.2 ± 8.4

73.6 ± 6.8

68.9 ± 9.4

0.036

η² = 0.038

0.358

η² = 0.026

0.077

η² = 0.014

PW

76.1 ± 11.2

74.3 ± 9.1

71.0 ± 6.1

75.6 ± 13.0

MW

76.3 ± 8.9

74.1 ± 6.4

74.1 ± 6.4

77.9 ± 8.7

CTRL

77.8 ± 10.5

76.9 ± 9.4

76.3 ± 7.3

76.6 ± 11.5

Triglycerides (TG, mmol/L)

NW

1.5 ± 0.7

1.5 ± 0.7

1.4 ± 0.4

1.2 ± 0.6

0.388

η² = 0.008

0.975

η² = 0.002

< 0.001

η² = 0.047

[T0,T12,T24 > R12]

PW

1.5 ± 0.4

1.3 ± 0.3

1.2 ± 0.3

1.3 ± 0.4

MW

1.5 ± 0.6

1.4 ± 0.5

1.4 ± 0.5

1.1 ± 0.3

CTRL

1.5 ± 0.5

1.5 ± 0.5

1.4 ± 0.3

1.2 ± 0.5

High-density lipoprotein cholesterol

(HDL-C, mmol/L)

NW

1.4 ± 0.3

1.5 ± 0.4

1.5 ± 0.3

1.6 ± 0.3

< 0.001

η² = 0.029

0.860

η² = 0.009

< 0.001

η² = 0.028

[N.A.]

PW

1.4 ± 0.3

1.5 ± 0.4

1.7 ± 0.3

1.5 ± 0.3

MW

1.5 ± 0.3

1.4 ± 0.3

1.4 ± 0.3

1.6 ± 0.3

CTRL

1.5 ± 0.3

1.3 ± 0.2

1.4 ± 0.2

1.6 ± 0.3

Low-density lipoprotein cholesterol

(LDL-C, mmol/L)

NW

2.6 ± 0.5

2.5 ± 0.5

2.4 ± 0.5

2.6 ± 0.5

< 0.001

η² = 0.017

0.268

η² = 0.046

< 0.001

η² = 0.034

[N.A.]

PW

2.6 ± 0.7

2.4 ± 0.6

2.0 ± 0.5

2.6 ± 0.7

MW

2.6 ± 0.7

2.6 ± 0.6

2.5 ± 0.5

2.7 ± 0.7

CTRL

2.8 ± 0.6

2.7 ± 0.5

2.8 ± 0.5

2.9 ± 0.6

HbA1c (mmol/L)

NW

5.7 ± 0.3

5.6 ± 0.3

5.6 ± 0.3

5.7 ± 0.3

0.001

η² = 0.007

0.487

η² = 0.030

0.233

η² = 0.001

PW

5.7 ± 0.4

5.8 ± 0.4

5.7 ± 0.4

5.7 ± 0.4

MW

5.8 ± 0.3

5.8 ± 0.3

5.8 ± 0.3

5.8 ± 0.3

CTRL

5.7 ± 0.3

5.7 ± 0.3

5.7 ± 0.3

5.5 ± 0.3

Fasting blood glucose (FBG, mmol/L)

NW

5.2 ± 0.4

5.6 ± 1.5

5.3 ± 0.3

5.2 ± 0.4

0.611

η² = 0.016

0.325

η² = 0.018

0.286

η² = 0.010

PW

5.4 ± 0.6

5.4 ± 0.2

5.3 ± 0.4

5.4 ± 0.6

MW

5.5 ± 0.6

5.4 ± 0.4

5.4 ± 0.4

5.5 ± 0.6

CTRL

5.5 ± 0.5

5.6 ± 0.5

5.6 ± 0.4

5.6 ± 0.5

Relative cardiac output

(CO, L/min)

NW

0.8 ± 0.1

0.7 ± 0.3

0.5 ± 0.7

1.0 ± 0.1

0.928

η² = 0.001

0.349

η² = 0.038

< 0.001

η² = 0.032

[T24 > R12 > T12 > T0]

PW

0.6 ± 1.3

0.4 ± 1.3

0.4 ± 1.3

0.8 ± 1.3

MW

1.1 ± 1.1

1.0 ± 1.1

0.9 ± 1.1

1.2 ± 1.1

CTRL

0.8 ± 0.2

0.6 ± 0.1

0.4 ± 0.1

0.8 ± 0.6

Relative stroke volume

(SV, ml)

NW

3.8 ± 9.5

5.0 ± 8.6

8.2 ± 10.6

3.3 ± 10.6

0.528

η² = 0.008

0.840

η² = 0.008

0.005

η² = 0.019

PW

5.6 ± 12.8

7.2 ± 8.9

7.21 ± 1.1

5.5 ± 9.6

MW

5.7 ± 12.6

6.6 ± 11.4

11.5 ± 10.2

6.5 ± 12.6

CTRL

6.3 ± 10.8

5.1 ± 9.9

6.0 ± 5.1

5.8 ± 11.1

Relative ejection fraction

(EF, %)

NW

6.3 ± 9.5

6.8 ± 9.2

6.0 ± 4.9

6.2 ± 9.5

0.275

η² = 0.014

0.578

η² = 0.019

0.276

η² = 0.005

PW

9.4 ± 12.7

5.1 ± 11.8

6.4 ± 7.9

9.3 ± 12.7

MW

8.7 ± 5.7

9.5 ± 5.1

5.0 ± 7.2

8.7 ± 5.7

CTRL

3.7 ± 10.8

6.0 ± 10.5

3.6 ± 1.6

3.7 ± 10.2

Maximal oxygen uptake

(VO₂max, ml/kg/min)

NW

30.5 ± 3.7

32.2 ± 3.8

34.1 ± 2.5

32.4 ± 3.8

0.001

η² = 0.048

< 0.001

η² = 0.172

[N.A.]

< 0.001

η² = 0.110

[N.A.]

PW

30.1 ± 4.0

35.5 ± 2.4

36.7 ± 2.8

35.3 ± 2.6

MW

29.3 ± 3.0

32.1 ± 2.1

32.1 ± 2.1

31.1 ± 2.6

CTRL

29.3 ± 3.1

29.7 ± 2.6

29.3 ± 3.1

28.8 ± 3.4

Oxidative capacity at anaerobic threshold

(VO₂AT, ml/kg/min)

NW

15.4 ± 1.5

16.5 ± 1.3

17.9 ± 0.9

15.4 ± 1.5

< 0.001

η² = 0.084

< 0.001

η² = 0.113

[N.A.]

< 0.001

η² = 0.297

[N.A.]

PW

15.0 ± 2.0

16.4 ± 1.2

19.6 ± 0.7

15.0 ± 2.0

MW

15.1 ± 0.9

16.4 ± 0.8

17.3 ± 0.8

15.1 ± 0.9

CTRL

14.7 ± 1.5

14.8 ± 1.3

14.7 ± 1.5

14.4 ± 1.7

Oxidative capacity at respiratory compensation point

(VO2RCP, ml/kg/min)

NW

25.9 ± 3.1

26.3 ± 2.8

26.7 ± 2.7

25.9 ± 3.1

< 0.001

η² = 0.007

0.376

η² = 0.039

< 0.001

η² = 0.018

[N.A.]

PW

25.6 ± 3.4

26.5 ± 2.7

27.5 ± 2.4

25.6 ± 3.4

MW

24.9 ± 2.5

25.4 ± 2.4

25.7 ± 2.3

24.9 ± 2.5

CTRL

24.9 ± 2.6

25.0 ± 2.5

24.9 ± 2.5

24.7 ± 2.8