Fig. 2

Structural equation models that reveal relationships among early-life cognitive reserve, late-life leisure activity, and cognitive performance. Full lines with arrows indicate significant paths and dotted lines indicate insignificant paths. Bold numbers without asterisks are significant path coefficients (β, all p < 0.001), bold numbers with asterisks (^*p < 0.05, ^**p < 0.01, and ^***p < 0.001) indicate indirect effects, and narrow numbers are residual variances. Metrics that represent the goodness of model fit are listed separately. A Grouped sample (N = 583) SEM model built with early-life cognitive reserve, late-life leisure activity, and four cognitive domains. B Grouped sample (N = 583) SEM model built with early-life cognitive reserve, late-life leisure activity, and general cognitive function. Abbreviation: ECR, early-life cognitive reserve; LLA, late-life leisure activity; MEM, memory; VSA, visuospatial ability; ATT, attention; EF, executive function; EDU, level of education; OCC, occupational attainment; MA, mental activity; PA, physical activity; SA, social activity; N5, auditory verbal learning test long-time delayed recall; N1N5, auditory verbal learning test total recall; CFT, Rey-osterrieth complex figure test; CDT, clock-drawing test; SDMT, symbol digit modalities test; TMTA, trail-making test part A; SCWT, stroop color-word test; TMTB, trail-making test part B; COG, general cognitive function; Z-MEM, mean Z-score of tests in memory domain; Z-VSA, mean Z-score of tests in visuospatial ability domain; Z-ATT, mean Z-score of tests in attention domain; Z-EF, mean Z-score of tests in executive function domain