Table 1 Baseline characteristics of participants according to grip strength groups

Age^a

70.69 ± 8.39

63.26 ± 7.40

58.12 ± 5.44

< 0.001^*

Female

53.38

50.99

48.08

< 0.001^*

 Central Europe

29.23

33.16

31.41

< 0.001^*

 Northern Europe

12.97

17.05

24.34

 Southern Europe

35.34

25.17

17.27

 Western Europe

21.45

24.62

26.98

 Married, living with a spouse

68.97

76.43

80.26

< 0.001^*

 Primary Education

44.70

23.81

14.43

< 0.001^*

 Secondary Education

39.67

52.79

56.43

 Tertiary Education

15.63

23.40

28.14

 Employed

20.40

17.95

15.51

< 0.001^*

 Retired

67.92

48.20

25.76

 Unemployed

11.69

33.85

58.73

 With great difficulty

12.26

8.41

5.57

< 0.001^*

 With some difficulty

30.68

25.37

22.38

 Fairly easily

33.75

34.72

35.19

 Easily

23.31

31.50

36.86

 Never smoking

41.63

32.33

26.92

< 0.001^*

 Ever smoker

25.42

28.27

31.64

 Current smoker

32.95

39.40

41.44

 More than recommended level

13.58

21.25

26.50

< 0.001^*

 Heart attack (%)^b

12.74

8.24

5.31

< 0.001^*

 Hypertension (%)^b

39.39

32.49

24.54

< 0.001^*

 Hyperlipidemia (%)^b

24.78

21.75

16.98

< 0.001^*

 Diabetes (%)^b

14.22

8.76

4.63

< 0.001^*

 Mobility limitation (%)^b

53.70

32.64

23.52

< 0.001^*

 Physical inactivity (%)^b

9.54

3.74

2.50

< 0.001^*

BMI^a

26.70 ± 4.33

26.56 ± 4.10

26.91 ± 4.71

< 0.001^*

Cognition^a

−0.70 ± 3.15

1.11 ± 2.72

2.14 ± 2.54

< 0.001^*

 wave 2

1.34 ± 1.07

1.16 ± 1.05

1.10 ± 1.04

< 0.001^*

 wave 4

2.17 ± 1.97

1.73 ± 1.73

1.51 ± 1.61

< 0.001^*

 wave 5

2.24 ± 2.10

1.68 ± 1.78

1.43 ± 1.54

< 0.001^*

 wave 6

2.48 ± 2.24

1.79 ± 1.85

1.56 ± 1.71

< 0.001^*

 wave 7

2.53 ± 2.24

1.83 ± 1.86

1.44 ± 1.58

< 0.001^*

 wave 8

2.52 ± 2.28

1.81 ± 1.85

1.52 ± 1.68

< 0.001^*