Table 2 The baseline attributes of the participants detected with and without adverse health outcomes at the 5-years follow-up (presented as mean ± standard deviation (sd) or number of participants (%)]

Age

68.98 ± 6.17

67.63 ± 5.33

<.001*

69.37 ± 6.55

67.55 ± 5.25

.004*

70.66 ± 6.21

67.10 ± 4.90

<.001*

 Men

45 (33.1)

134 (51.3)

<.001*

36 (37.1)

143 (47.2)

.085

23 (37.7%)

159 (46.6%)

.211

 Women

91 (66.9)

130 (48.7)

61 (62.9)

160 (52.8)

38 (62.3%)

180 (53.4%)

 Malay

49 (36.0)

113 (42.9)

.197

35 (36.1)

118 (41.8)

.351

26 (42.6%)

136 (39.9%)

.777

 Non-Malay

87 (64.0)

151 (57.1)

62 (23.1)

185 (58.2)

35 (57.4%)

203 (60.1%)

Education (years)

5.20 ± 3.98

5.72 ± 4.08

.048*

5.60 ± 4.57

6.42 ± 4.52

.113

4.02 ± 3.47

6.77 ± 4.62

<.001*

Living alone

13 (9.6)

17 (6.5)

.318

15 (15.5)

25 (7.1)

.015*

8 (13.1%)

21 (6.2%)

.062

Smoker

29 (21.3)

60 (23.0)

.800

24 (24.7)

80 (22.6)

.684

17 (27.9%)

71 (20.8%)

.240

Household income

1285.83 ± 1856.91

1442.01 ± 2797.75

.296

1249.90 ± 1821.05

1782.34 ± 2536.02

.055

878.57 ± 1119.84

1852.85 ± 2576.85

<.001*

 Diabetes

38 (27.9)

60 (23.0)

.327

27 (27.8)

86 (24.3)

.509

20 (32.8)

80 (23.7)

.149

 Hypertension

68 (50.0)

123 (47.1)

.598

46 (47.4)

172 (48.6)

.909

34 (55.7)

157 (46.4)

.211

 Hypercholesterolemia

48 (35.3)

73 (28.0)

.137

34 (35.1)

106 (29.9)

.386

19 (31.1)

102 (30.2)

.881

 Heart Disease

15 (11.0)

16 (6.1)

.113

11 (11.3)

26 (7.3)

.212

9 (14.8)

23 (6.8)

.068

 BMI (kg/m²)

25.76 ± 4.18

25.44 ± 4.22

.386

24.21 ± 3.84

25.67 ± 4.11

.002*

26.60 ± 4.13

25.31 ± 4.02

.023*

 CC (cm)

33.48 ± 3.64

33.67 ± 3.52

.418

33.29 ± 3.33

34.55 ± 3.54

.002*

34.13 ± 3.18

34.48 ± 3.52

.469

 WC (cm)

88.03 ± 10.68

88.14 ± 10.51

.868

86.85 ± 11.09

89.60 ± 10.41

.024*

92.94 ± 9.36

88.73 ± 10.52

.004*

 MUAC (cm)

28.59 ± 3.25

28.58 ± 3.18

.949

27.63 ± 3.10

29.19 ± 3.27

<.001*

29.38 ± 3.22

29.01 ± 3.12

.396

 % Body Fat

40.32 ± 10.13

38.93 ± 10.49

.039*

38.28 ± 9.99

38.52 ± 10.13

.838

43.19 ± 10.28

37.91 ± 9.89

<.001*

 Fat mass (kg)

25.00 ± 9.28

24.46 ± 8.81

.359

22.97 ± 9.15

24.90 ± 8.76

.057

27.91 ± 8.69

24.25 ± 8.72

.003*

 Fat free mass (kg)

35.76 ± 7.01

37.42 ± 8.13

.001*

35.74 ± 7.47

38.87 ± 8.12

.001*

36.03 ± 7.20

38.80 ± 8.23

.014*

 Skeletal muscle mass (kg)

18.93 ± 4.17

19.94 ± 4.86

.001*

18.92 ± 4.47

20.81 ± 4.86

.001*

19.10 ± 4.30

20.77 ± 4.93

.013*

 FBS (mmol/l)

5.79 ± 1.55

6.05 ± 1.96

.038*

5.69 ± 1.45

6.03 ± 2.23

.222

43.19 ± 10.28

37.91 ± 9.89

.866

 HbA1c (%)

13.71 ± 1.93

14.24 ± 2.19

.001*

14.18 ± 2.81

14.57 ± 2.67

.271

14.20 ± 2.24

14.54 ± 2.67

.406

 Total cholesterol (mmol/l)

5.37 ± 1.14

5.39 ± 1.07

.780

5.21 ± 1.01

5.19 ± 1.00

.899

5.00 ± 1.02

5.22 ± 1.01

.159

 HDL (mmol/l)

1.42 ± 0.36

1.40 ± 0.34

.327

1.52 ± 0.38

1.44 ± 0.37

.109

1.46 ± 0.37

1.46 ± 0.38

.978

 LDL (mmol/l)

3.29 ± 1.05

3.33 ± 0.98

.620

3.04 ± 0.93

3.10 ± 0.91

.610

5.00 ± 1.02

5.22 ± 1.01

.192

 Albumin (g/l)

42.76 ± 2.41

42.94 ± 2.53

.313

42.68 ± 2.65

43.05 ± 2.75

.303

42.38 ± 2.40

43.07 ± 2.73

.093

 GDS

2.69 ± 2.31

2.43 ± 2.14

.084

2.73 ± 2.43

2.58 ± 2.29

.579

4.43 ± 3.48

2.52 ± 2.67

<.001*

 MOSS

37.89 ± 14.95

40.24 ± 14.84

.017*

36.57 ± 16.13

37.50 ± 15.19

.603

30.39 ± 16.89

38.18 ± 14.53

<.001*

 Loneliness

3.34 ± 1.06

3.17 ± 0.74

.003*

3.29 ± 0.91

3.21 ± 0.84

.421

3.34 ± 1.05

3.20 ± 0.79

.022*

 IADL

12.76 ± 2.00

12.75 ± 1.84

.904

13.13 ± 1.52

13.13 ± 1.59

.977

12.77 ± 1.76

13.21 ± 1.53

.046*

 WHODAS

6.28 ± 8.69

4.54 ± 6.55

.010*

7.03 ± 9.17

5.37 ± 7.52

.001

8.66 ± 8.16

4.50 ± 7.03

<.001*

 ALQ

39.25 ± 10.35

39.82 ± 10.28

.404

39.91 ± 10.52

41.99 ± 9.89

.124

37.08 ± 9.82

42.71 ± 9.91

<.001*

 MMSE

23.45 ± 4.64

23.86 ± 4.19

.153

23.29 ± 5.56

24.66 ± 4.08

.008*

22.36 ± 5.41

24.85 ± 3.97

<.001*

 MoCA

19.31 ± 5.56

19.82 ± 5.37

.156

20.67 ± 5.32

23.29 ± 5.56

.130

18.05 ± 5.57

21.08 ± 5.15

<.001*

 Span Digit

7.57 ± 2.48

7.73 ± 2.32

.321

7.60 ± 2.53

8.16 ± 2.47

.052

7.67 ± 2.32

8.14 ± 2.52

.154

 RAVLT

40.12 ± 9.69

40.42 ± 9.54

.640

39.84 ± 9.49

40.64 ± 10.36

.499

37.17 ± 9.31

41.01 ± 10.42

.008*

 Digit symbol

5.12 ± 2.58

5.39 ± 2.73

.122

5.72 ± 3.01

6.21 ± 3.21

.193

4.68 ± 2.00

6.43 ± 3.27

<.001*

 2-min step test

63.83 ± 26.57

66.13 ± 22.89

.156

67.71 ± 28.14

69.20 ± 24.11

.606

55.43 ± 28.69

70.83 ± 23.65

<.001*

 Chair stand test

10.35 ± 3.00

10.49 ± 2.97

.461

10.48 ± 3.40

10.89 ± 3.09

.257

9.20 ± 2.67

11.18 ± 3.08

<.001*

 Chair sit and reach test

0.21 ± 11.73

− 0.44 ± 10.75

.378

1.29 ± 9.79

1.94 ± 9.85

.570

4.48 ± 10.22

1.55 ± 9.76

.034*

 TUG test

10.43 ± 2.75

10.18 ± 2.61

.156

9.60 ± 2.78

9.46 ± 2.48

.633

10.76 ± 2.61

9.20 ± 2.41

<.001*

 Back scratch test

14.09 ± 12.53

13.66 ± 11.95

.599

13.80 ± 11.15

13.70 ± 12.55

.946

18.67 ± 13.12

12.65 ± 11.97

<.001*

MCI

15 (11.1%)

38 (14.4%)

.355

11 (10.1)

49 (14.4)

.161

35 (57.4%)

124 (36.5%)

.039*

Physical frailty

67 (49.6%)

100 (38.0%)

.032*

13 (11.9)

19 (5.6)

.025*

3 (4.9%)

50 (14.7%)

.003*

Cognitive frailty

82 (60.3%)

95 (36.4%)

<.001*

52 (47.7)

125 (36.8)

.028*

36 (59.0%)

124 (36.5%)

.002*

 Energy (kcal)

1633 ± 4.71

1698 ± 490

.047*

1608 ± 436

1656 ± 432

.345

1549 ± 438

1658 ± 427

.076

 Protein (g)

70.30 ± 22.86

71.91 ± 21.72

.283

69.16 ± 22.78

69.70 ± 20.09

.828

68.25 ± 19.78

69.92 ± 21.10

.576

 Carbohydrate (g)

217.67 ± 74.41

232.94 ± 80.85

.004*

205.08 ± 69.70

223.10 ± 70.92

.032*

202.29 ± 68.81

221.53 ± 69.56

.053

 Fat (g)

53.27 ± 20.84

52.82 ± 18.86

.730

56.69 ± 19.71

53.36 ± 17.86

.125

51.79 ± 18.64

54.13 ± 18.06

.368

 Fibre (g)

4.26 ± 2.83

4.02 ± 2.42

.155

4.66 ± 2.88

4.65 ± 2.57

.976

4.06 ± 2.13

4.81 ± 2.81

.022*

 Vitamin C (mg)

116.08 ± 82.15

124.47 ± 88.82

.144

134.07 ± 77.29

134.40 ± 86.99

.973

125.42 ± 88.04

136.29 ± 86.91

.383

 Vitamin D (μg)

0.30 ± 0.99

0.27 ± 0.81

.696

0.38 ± 0.84

0.34 ± 0.99

.742

0.24 ± 0.87

0.36 ± 0.99

.360

 Vitamin E (mg)

14.45 ± 68.58

8.58 ± 41.43

.105

7.51 ± 19.83

5.96 ± 14.02

.399

8.04 ± 24.58

6.15 ± 14.37

.419

 Thiamin (mg)

1.26 ± 2.48

1.56 ± 3.81

.148

1.10 ± 2.06

1.51 ± 3.11

.235

1.64 ± 3.33

1.54 ± 3.31

.836

 Riboflavin (mg)

1.23 ± 0.50

1.24 ± 0.47

.732

1.25 ± 0.47

1.25 ± 0.45

.987

1.11 ± 0.43

1.29 ± 0.46

.006*

 Niacin (mg)

10.51 ± 4.59

10.47 ± 3.76

.879

10.63 ± 4.82

10.04 ± 3.47

.198

9.26 ± 2.82

10.39 ± 4.00

.040*

 Sodium (mg)

1447.62 ± 564.41

1517.57 ± 1080.13

.291

1421.61 ± 785.88

1443.61 ± 902.77

.830

1739.82 ± 1310.0

1422.52 ± 798.02

.079

 Calcium (mg)

512.31 ± 424.24

529.64 ± 234.93

.281

517.19 ± 224.21

509.32 ± 220.00

.764

480.69 ± 215.99

515.61 ± 223.39

.272

 Iron (mg)

13.53 ± 5.42

13.81 ± 5.19

.436

13.47 ± 5.18

13.65 ± 4.77

.749

13.24 ± 4.73

13.76 ± 4.85

.451

 Zinc (mg)

3.63 ± 1.81

3.75 ± 2.00

.334

3.59 ± 1.58

3.77 ± 1.88

.527

3.50 ± 1.88

3.75 ± 1.87

.359