Parameters | Non-fallers (n = 1454) [Prevalence (%) or mean ± SD] | Occasional fallers (n = 224) [Prevalence (%) or mean ± SD] | P-value | Recurrent fallers (n = 85) [Prevalence (%) or mean ± SD] | P-value |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Age (years) | 68.62 ± 5.94 | 68.80 ± 6.13 | 0.668 | 68.65 ±6.07 | 0.967 |
Sex | |||||
Male | 751 (51.65) | 89 (39.73) | 0.001* | 27 (31.76) | <0.001* |
Female | 703 (48.35) | 135 (60.27) | 58 (68.24) | ||
Ethnicity | |||||
Malay | 879 (60.45) | 146 (65.18) | 0.119 | 58 (68.24) | 0.218 |
Chinese | 509 (35.01) | 64 (28.57) | 22 (25.88) | ||
Indian | 66 (4.54) | 14 (6.25) | 5 (5.88) | ||
Single | 18 (1.24) | 7 (3.13) | 0.030* | 1 (1.18) | 0.960 |
Living alone | 138 (9.49) | 22 (9.82) | 0.875 | 15 (17.65) | 0.015* |
Smoking | 251 (17.26) | 34 (15.18) | 0.439 | 10 (11.76) | 0.189 |
Alcohol consumption | 66 (4.54) | 7 (3.13) | 0.334 | 2 (2.35) | 0.340 |
Education (years) | 5.38 ± 4.03 | 4.88 ± 3.79 | 0.083 | 4.54 ± 4.04 | 0.063 |
Falls history | 222 (15.27) | 68 (30.36) | <0.001* | 36 (42.35) | <0.001* |
Chronic diseases | |||||
Hypertension | 714 (49.11) | 116 (51.79) | 0.455 | 46 (54.12) | 0.369 |
Diabetes mellitus | 363 (24.97) | 57 (25.45) | 0.877 | 24 (28.24) | 0.499 |
Stroke | 22 (1.51) | 3 (1.34) | 0.842 | 4 (4.71) | 0.026* |
Joint Pain | 337 (23.18) | 64 (28.57) | 0.078 | 31 (36.47) | 0.005* |
Cardiovascular diseases | 147 (10.11) | 21 (9.38) | 0.733 | 7 (8.24) | 0.576 |
Cataract & glaucoma | 127 (8.73) | 27 (12.05) | 0.109 | 7 (8.24) | 0.874 |
Asthma | 111 (7.63) | 18 (8.04) | 0.834 | 10 (11.76) | 0.169 |
Gout | 68 (4.68) | 7 (3.13) | 0.295 | 5 (5.88) | 0.611 |
Gastric ulcer | 178 (12.24) | 34 (15.18) | 0.218 | 15 (17.65) | 0.144 |
Urinary Incontinence | 143 (9.83) | 26 (11.61) | 0.412 | 11 (12.94) | 0.354 |
Hearing & vision problems | 173 (11.90) | 23 (10.27) | 0.479 | 15 (17.65) | 0.116 |
Psychosocial | |||||
Depression | 2.54 ± 2.19 | 2.95 ± 2.42 | 0.012* | 3.35 ± 2.63 | 0.007* |
Physical | |||||
BMI (kg/m2) | 24.95 ± 4.41 | 25.11 ± 4.83 | 0.606 | 25.68 ± 5.07 | 0.140 |
Circumference: waist (cm) | 88.21 ± 11.20 | 88.08 ± 11.97 | 0.870 | 89.88 ± 12.62 | 0.239 |
Circumference: hip (cm) | 96.54 ± 9.18 | 96.95 ± 10.37 | 0.575 | 98.46 ± 11.61 | 0.139 |
Circumference: calf (cm) | 33.55 ± 3.75 | 33.12 ± 3.85 | 0.114 | 33.41 ± 4.08 | 0.744 |
Fat mass (kg) | 24.19 ± 9.09 | 24.47 ± 9.67 | 0.680 | 26.32 ± 10.16 | 0.038* |
Fat free mass (kg) | 37.16 ± 7.89 | 35.64 ± 7.07 | 0.004* | 35.17 ± 7.90 | 0.025* |
Skeletal muscle mass (kg) | 19.75 ± 4.71 | 18.82 ± 4.21 | 0.003* | 18.51 ± 4.70 | 0.019* |
Percentage of body fat (%) | 38.68 ± 10.38 | 39.69 ± 10.20 | 0.178 | 41.89 ± 10.26 | 0.006* |
Systolic (mmHg) | 140.70 ± 22.40 | 141.13 ± 20.34 | 0.795 | 138.81 ± 23.46 | 0.471 |
Diastolic (mmHg) | 77.26 ± 13.44 | 76.87 ± 12.96 | 0.689 | 77.31 ± 12.88 | 0.975 |
Nutrition | |||||
Energy (kcal/day) | 1,658.03 ± 485.42 | 1,583.99 ± 436.79 | 0.037* | 1,625.96 ± 509.31 | 0.560 |
Protein (g/day) | 70.85 ± 22.10 | 68.75 ± 23.29 | 0.201 | 69.36 ± 22.77 | 0.550 |
Carbohydrate (g/day) | 224.76 ± 77.79 | 209.95 ± 67.82 | 0.004* | 218.05 ± 81.67 | 0.447 |
Sugar (g/day) | 21.51 ± 15.12 | 20.42 ±14.94 | 0.331 | 18.51 ± 12.94 | 0.077 |
Fat (g/day) | 52.87 ± 20.69 | 51.79 ± 20.36 | 0.477 | 53.13 ± 20.72 | 0.912 |
Cholesterol (mg/day) | 158.51 ± 113.21 | 162.88 ± 122.33 | 0.606 | 172.06 ± 130.20 | 0.294 |
Saturated fat (mg/day) | 8.39 ± 5.73 | 8.20 ± 6.14 | 0.681 | 9.05±6.10 | 0.307 |
MUFA (g/day) | 8.32 ± 5.02 | 8.44 ± 5.65 | 0.750 | 8.71 ± 5.73 | 0.498 |
PUFA (g/day) | 5.44 ± 3.43 | 5.49 ± 3.67 | 0.834 | 5.40 ± 3.22 | 0.916 |
Vitamin D (mg/day) | 0.35 ± 2.50 | 0.27 ± 0.97 | 0.682 | 0.34 ± 1.05 | 0.990 |
Vitamin E (mg/day) | 12.04 ± 62.58 | 14.77 ± 71.91 | 0.563 | 4.33 ± 2.40 | 0.262 |
α-tocopherol (mg/day) | 0.45 ± 1.17 | 0.51 ± 1.45 | 0.506 | 0.54 ± 1.22 | 0.495 |
Sodium (mg/day) | 1,466.23 ± 979.55 | 1,401.85 ± 1068.97 | 0.545 | 1,466.36 ± 799.12 | 0.854 |
Potassium (mg/day) | 1,510.35 ± 552.18 | 1,443.59 ± 522.91 | 0.099 | 1,402.60 ± 534.01 | 0.083 |
Calcium (mg/day) | 520.70 ± 248.06 | 501.46 ± 242.21 | 0.292 | 473.34 ± 212.43 | 0.089 |
Iron (mg/day) | 13.51 ± 5.41 | 12.96 ± 4.84 | 0.160 | 13.26 ± 6.10 | 0.681 |
Phosphorus (mg/day) | 1,094.54 ± 418.46 | 1,081.38 ± 425.24 | 0.671 | 1,067.02 ± 389.09 | 0.559 |
Magnesium (mg/day) | 131.86 ± 64.94 | 128.51 ± 68.80 | 0.489 | 123.00 ± 63.66 | 0.227 |
Zinc (mg/day) | 3.63 ± 1.99 | 3.38 ± 1.60 | 0.047* | 3.40 ± 1.65 | 0.310 |
Selenium (μg/day) | 23.98 ± 18.23 | 22.47 ± 17.17 | 0.260 | 23.88 ± 16.95 | 0.961 |
Biochemical | |||||
Hemoglobin (g/L) | 14.20 ± 2.30 | 13.64 ± 1.85 | <0.001* | 13.42 ± 2.13 | 0.008* |
Glucose (mmol/L) | 6.19 ± 2.28 | 5.95 ± 1.69 | 0.096 | 6.18 ± 2.00 | 0.987 |
Cholesterol (mmol/L) | 5.41 ± 1.12 | 5.47 ± 1.09 | 0.532 | 5.54 ± 1.05 | 0.359 |
HDL (mmol/L) | 1.40 ± 0.34 | 1.41 ± 0.39 | 0.726 | 1.47 ± 0.46 | 0.121 |
LDL (mmol/L) | 3.34 ± 1.03 | 3.36 ± 0.95 | 0.806 | 3.42 ± 0.98 | 0.523 |
Triglyceride (mmol/L) | 1.50 ± 0.76 | 1.55 ± 0.76 | 0.513 | 1.45 ± 0.63 | 0.598 |
Albumin (g/L) | 42.93 ± 2.77 | 42.86 ± 2.75 | 0.736 | 42.42 ± 2.90 | 0.158 |
Cognitive Test | |||||
Digit Span | 7.62 ± 2.42 | 7.46 ± 2.37 | 0.346 | 7.43 ± 2.40 | 0.479 |
MMSE | 23.32 ± 4.64 | 22.62 ± 4.82 | 0.037* | 22.77 ± 5.16 | 0.299 |
MoCA | 19.23 ± 5.57 | 18.35 ± 5.82 | 0.031* | 18.56 ± 5.88 | 0.294 |
Digit Symbol | 5.14 ± 2.59 | 4.73 ± 2.50 | 0.038* | 4.55 ± 2.29 | 0.059 |
Physical performance | |||||
2-minute step test (number) | 62.44 ± 25.45 | 60.70 ± 24.96 | 0.350 | 56.31 ± 32.72 | 0.104 |
Chair stand test (number) | 10.05 ± 2.98 | 9.60 ± 3.28 | 0.039* | 8.83 ± 3.07 | <0.001* |
Timed Up and Go test (seconds) | 11.33 ± 3.56 | 11.62 ± 3.49 | 0.258 | 12.84 ± 5.28 | 0.013* |
Dominant handgrip muscle strength test (kg) | 22.59 ± 7.66 | 20.82 ± 7.27 | 0.002* | 19.57 ± 6.69 | 0.001* |