Table 2 Coefficients from random-effects ordinal probit models for psychological well-being in the CLHLS

 Age

0.01 (0.01–0.01) ^***

0.01 (0.01–0.01) ^***

0.01 (0.01–0.01) ^***

 Wave

−0.00 (− 0.01 - − 0.00) ^*

−0.00 (− 0.01–0.00)

-0.00 (− 0.01 - -0.00) ^*

 Rural (vs. urban)

−0.15 (− 0.17 - -0.12)^***

− 0.13 (− 0.15 - -0.10) ^***

−0.13 (− 0.15 - − 0.10)^***

 Female (vs. male)

-0.10 (− 0.13 - -0.07)^***

−0.08 (− 0.11 - -0.05) ^***

−0.08 (− 0.11 - -0.05)^***

 Minority (vs. Han)

0.01 (− 0.05–0.06)

0.01 (− 0.05–0.07)

0.01 (−0.05–0.07)

 Married (vs. unmarried)

0.14 (0.11–0.18) ^***

0.12 (0.08–0.15) ^***

0.12 (0.08–0.15) ^***

 Child alive (vs. no child alive)

0.08 (0.03–0.13) ^**

0.07 (0.02–0.12) ^**

0.08 (0.03–0.12) ^**

 Sibling alive (vs. no sibling alive)

0.05 (0.02–0.08) ^***

0.05 (0.02–0.08) ^**

0.05 (0.02–0.08) ^**

 Education

0.00 (0.00–0.01) ^***

0.00 (0.00–0.00) ^***

0.00 (0.00–0.00) ^***

 Professional occupation (vs. non-professional)

0.15 (0.10–0.19) ^***

0.13 (0.09–0.18) ^***

0.13 (0.09–0.18) ^***

 Financially sufficient (vs. insufficient)

0.50 (0.47–0.53) ^***

0.49 (0.46–0.52) ^***

0.49 (0.46–0.52) ^***

 Social support (vs.no)

0.12 (0.06–0.17) ^***

0.12 (0.07–0.18) ^***

0.12 (0.06–0.17) ^***

 Current smoker (vs. no)

0.04 (0.00–0.07) ^*

0.04 (0.01–0.08) ^*

0.04 (0.01–0.08) ^*

 Current drinker (vs. no)

0.10 (0.07–0.13) ^***

0.10 (0.06–0.13) ^***

0.10 (0.06–0.13) ^***

 Regular exercise (vs. no)

0.30 (0.27–0.32) ^***

0.29 (0.26–0.32) ^***

0.29 (0.26–0.32) ^***

 Chronic diseases

−0.08 (− 0.10 - -0.07)^***

−0.08 (− 0.10 - -0.07) ^***

−0.08 (− 0.10 - -0.07)^***

 ADL disability

0.02 (− 0.00–0.04)

0.02 (− 0.00–0.04)

0.02 (−0.00–0.04)

 Cognitively impaired (vs. non-impaired)

0.50 (0.47–0.54) ^***

0.51 (0.47–0.54) ^***

0.51 (0.47–0.54) ^***

 With family

0.31 (0.27–0.35)^***

0.31 (0.27–0.35)^***

0.29 (0.24–0.33)^***

 Institution

0.26 (0.19–0.34)^***

0.28 (0.20–0.36)^***

0.34 (0.19–0.49)^***

 Children support

−0.12 (− 0.15 - -0.09)^***

−0.08 (− 0.16 - -0.00)^*

 Government support

−0.14 (− 0.20 - -0.08)^***

−0.24 (− 0.35 - -0.12)^***

 With family^*children support

0.04 (−0.04–0.13)

 With family^*government support

0.16 (0.03–0.28)^*

 Institution^* children support

−0.22 (− 0.41 - -0.02)^*

 Institution^* government support

0.12 (−0.08–0.32)

 Variance of random effect

0.18 (0.16–0.20)^***

0.17 (0.15–0.20)^***

0.18 (0.15–0.20)^***

 LR test

358.36^***

346.62^***

346.09^***