Table 1 Characteristics of included studies

No

Authors

Date

Country

Participants

Age range

Study Design

Theoretical Framework

Assistive Technology

Data collected from

 1

Altus DE et al. [52]

2000

USA

2- Spouses

(2 men)

Not reported

Interviews

Case study

GPS tracker/Mobile locator

Participant reflections and diary of incidents

 2

Cahill S [46]

2007

Ireland

20 – Spouses + Children + Sibling + Daughter-in-law + Friend

(5 men; 15 women)

34–79

Semi-structured interviews

Thematic Analysis

Automatic night and day calendar; lost item locator; automatic night lamp; gas cooker device; picture button telephone;

Participant reflections

 3

Starkhammar S et all [53]

2008

Sweden

14 Spouses + Daughters

(5 men; 9 women)

Not reported

Interviews and Observations

Grounded Theory

Stove timer

Participant reflections

 4

Faucounau V et al. [54]

2009

France

1 – Spouse

(1 woman)

68

Interviews

Single dyad case study

GPS tracker

Participant reflections

 5

Spring HJ [40]

2009

USA

14 – Spouses + Daughters + Grand daughter

(1 men; 13 women)

38–86

Semi-structured interviews

Full conceptual description- grounded theory

In-home night time monitoring system

Participant reflections

 6

Landau R et al. [55]

2010

Israel

36 – Spouses + Children

(12 men; 24 women)

Not reported

Focus groups

Thematic framework approach

GPS electronic tracking device

Participant reflections on vignettes

 7

Powell J et al. [41]

2010

England

34 – Spouses + Children + Grandchildren + Friend

(12 men; 22 women)

23–91

Semi-structured interviews

Framework approach

Movement sensors; cameras; automatic water and gas switch off devices; tracking devices

Participant reflections on vignettes

 8

White EB et al. [56]

2010

England

10 – Spouses + Son+ Daughter

(4 men; 6 women)

44–73

Interviews and survey

Grounded Theory

GPS tracker

Participant reflections and Machin carer strain scale (modified)

 9

Rosenberg L et al. [57]

2011

Sweden

4 – Son +Daughters +Neighbour

(1male; 3 women)

55–78

Observations and In-Depth interviews

Grounded Theory

Night and Day Calendar, Forget-Me-Not Calendar, Memory Message, MeDose watch

Participant reflections

 10

Olsson A et al. [58]

2012

Sweden

14 Spouses

(6men; 8 women)

62–89

Interviews

Not reported

Safety alarm, bed alarm, door alarm, passage sensor, electronic tracking device, cooker monitors, talking cazette, picture button telephone, memory aid, special remote control

Participant reflections

 11

Rosenberg L et al. [59]

2012

Sweden

16 – Spouses + Son +Daughter+ Neighbour

(5 men; 11 women)

45–78

Interviews and Focus groups

Grounded Theory

GPS monitor, electronic pill dispenser

Participant reflections

 12

Martin S et al. [60]

2013

Northern Ireland

8

(Gender not reported separately)

Not reported

Semi-structured interviews

Phenomenological approach

NOCTURNAL - Sensors, communication devices, tablet PC

Participant reflections

 13

Nijhof N et al. [61]

2013

Netherlands

14 – Spouses + Family + Friends (Gender not reported)

Not reported

Semi-structured interviews

Not reported

ADLife - gateway with alarm button, sensors

Participant reflections

 14

Olsson A et al. [62]

2013

Sweden

5 Spouses (2men; 3 women)

62–68

Participant Observation

Ethnographic approach

Passive Positioning Alarm

Participant experience

 15

Riikonen M et al. [47]

2013

Finland

25 – Spouses + Daughters + Brothers + Son-in-law + Niece

(12 men; 13 women)

Less than 65

Unstructured interviews and participant observations

Thought entity

Cameras, movement detectors, electronic medication reminder, photo memory telephone

Participant reflections

 16

Hastall MR et al. [63]

2014

Germany

17 - Spouses + Children

(4 men; 13 women)

38–91

Semi-structured interviews

Thematic Analysis

Information retrieval system; Video communication system; sensors

Participant reflections on vignettes

 17

Jentoft R et al. [64]

2014

Norway

9 – Son + Spouses +Daughters +Mother

(4 men; 5 women)

19–89

In-depth interviews and Observations

Social situated learning

Simple remote control for TV

Participant reflections

 18

Meiland F et al. [65]

2014

Netherlands and Germany

13

(Gender not reported separately)

Not reported

Interviews and Focus group

Not reported

COGKNOW day navigator; sensors and sensor network

Participant reflections on development of AT + Vignette

 19

Milne H et al. [66]

2014

Scotland

16 - Spouses + Sister + Son + Daughters + Son-in-law + Daughter-in-law

(7men; 9 women)

Not reported

Interviews

(part of observational mixed methods study)

Thematic analysis with constant comparison

GPS devices - worn as watches, pendants or carried in pockets and bags

Participant reflections

 20

Burstein AA et al. [67]

2015

USA

34 - Spouses + Children + Grandchildren + Friend + Neighbour + Sibling + Niece + Daughter-in-law + Cousin

(6 men; 28 women)

43–76

In-depth interviews

Not reported

Sensor technology, GPS tracking device. Plus emerging technology - robotic therapy seal, GPS tracking system; social contact system, health monitoring system

Participant reflections on awareness of technology

 21

Gibson G et al. [10]

2015

England

26 - Spouses and Daughters

(Gender not reported separately)

49–82

Interviews

Thematic analysis, constant comparative method

Community alarms and telecare; GPS location monitoring devices, signage, reminiscence tools, clocks to aid orientation, simplified telephones with pictures, pill dispensers

Participant reflections

 22

Arntzen C et al. [48]

2016

Norway

14 - Spouses +Children +Parent

Gender not reported)

19–89

In-depth interviews and Observations

Phenomenological conception of ‘lived body’

Sensors, timers, tracking device, cooker alarm, timer on coffee machine, automatic day and night calendar, simple remote control for television, electronic door lock, item locator, simple mobile phone, automatic day and date calendar, speaking arm-wrist watch, message box reading out a message when activated, memory clock, medicine dispenser with alarm

Participant reflections

 23

Grigorovich A et al. [68]

2016

Canada

20 – Sons + Son-in-law

(20 men)

25–66

Semi-structured interviews

Naturalistic enquiry, qualitative descriptive design

Cameras, baby monitors, skype

Participant reflections

 24

Newton L et al. [69]

2016

England

26

(Gender not reported separately)

49–82

Interviews

Not reported

Community alarms and telecare; GPS location monitoring devices, signage, reminiscence tools, clocks to aid orientation, simplified telephones with pictures, pill dispensers

Participant reflections

 25

Ekstrom A et al. [70]

2017

Sweden

1 – Spouse

(1 male)

Not reported

Video recording and observation

Talk-in interaction

Tablet computer

Length and domains of conversation

 26

Evans N et al. [49]

2017

England

6 – Daughters +Spouses +Daughter-in-law

(6 women)

48–62

Interviews and Focus groups

Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis

Calendar

Participant reflections

 27

Hassan L et al. [71]

2017

England

4

(Gender not reported)

Greater than 65

Focus group

Not reported

Wearable sensors

Participant reflections and discussion on vignettes

 28

Holthe T et al. [50]

2017

Norway

13 – Spouses + Daughter + Mother + son

(7 men; 6 women)

19–89

Interviews

Epistemology of coping

stove timer, timer to coffee machine, GPS, automatic calendar, simple remote control to TV, Electronic door lock, object locator, simple mobile phone, digital calendar with remote control, talking wrist watch, medicine dispenser with alarm, memory clock, message box connected to coffee machine

Participant reflections

 29

Lorenz K et al. [72]

2017

England

7 – Sons + other carers

(Gender not reported)

Not reported

Email and blog reviews

Not reported

Baby monitors, talking motion sensors, personalised recorded messages, cameras

Reports on personal evaluation of technology

 30

Wang RH et al. [51]

2017

Canada

10 – Spouses + Son + Daughters

(4 men; 6 women)

36–78

Semi-structured interviews

Thematic analysis

Assistive robot - Ed - personal computer; microphones, LCD screen, speakers and web cameras

Participant reflections based on observations

No

Authors

Date

Country

Participants

Age range

Study Design

Assistive Technology

Measures

Validated measures

 31

Gitlin LN et al. [35]

2010

USA

63/73 [Experimental/Control] – Spouse + Others

(13 Men; 50 women – Experimental group)

Dropouts not reported

53–79

Randomised controlled trial

Medication dispensers, video cameras, motion detectors, lost item finders

1. Use of device (yes/no).

2. Extent to which helpful (1 = not helpful, 2 = somewhat helpful, 3 = very helpful)

No

 32

Rowe MA et al. [36]

2009

USA

26/27 [Experimental/control] – Spouses + Daughter + Son + Granddaughter

(7/4 men; 19/23 women).

Dropouts = 10 in each group

38–86

Pre test-Post test repeated measures Randomised pilot study

Night Monitoring System

1. System reliability.

2. Satisfaction with the NMS.

3. Nighttime injuries.

4. Unattended exits from home.

5. Mechanisms to manage nightime activity.

6. Baseline variables including short version of Zarit Burden Interview; The neuropsychiatric Inventory

1–5 = No.

6. Zarit Burden Interview = Yes;

Quebec User Evaluatio of Satisfaction with Assistive Technology Questionnaire = Yes

 33

Rowe MA et al. [37]

2010

USA

26/27 [Experiemental/control] – Spouses + Daughters + Sons

(6/3 Men; 18/22 Women).

Dropouts = 4 in each group

38–86

Pre test-Post test Controlled Clinical Trial

Night Monitoring System

1. Caregiver distress about night time activity

2. Sleep diary

3. actigraphy

1. Generated for this study (10-point Likert-type scale.

2. Subjective 5-point scale

3. Analysis of sleep-wake cycles

 34

Olsson A et al. [73]

2015

Sweden

3 – Spouses

(3 women)

72–74

Three - Experimental single case studies (A1B1A2B2)

Passive Positioning Alarm

1. Percentage of days with independent outdoor activities.

2. Spouse’s worry concerning PwD’s independent outdoor activities (1–10 not worried at all to extremely worried).

3. General well-being for spouses (0–10 not well-being at all to extremely good).

4. Caregiver burden scale (1 not at all to 4 often).

1–3 = No;

4 = published for stroke patients

 35

Pot AM et al. [74]

2012

Netherlands

33- Spouses + Children

(2 Men; 26 Women)

Incomplete = 5

> 63

Pre test-Post test Trial

GPS tracking device

1. overall global impression of device from 1 to 10.

2. Structured questions for use of the device from totally agree, totally disagreem agree and disagree.

3. Accepatability using Agree, neutral, disagree.

4. Self-perceived pressure from informal care scale

1–3 = No;

4 = published

 36

Kinney J M et al. [38]

2004

USA

19 – Spouses + Son + Daughter + Sister + Great Niece.

(8 men; 11 women).

Incomplete = 6.

36–82

Survey and exit interview

Smart home management system (Xanboo); cameras and sensors, cell phone

1. Family obligation, competence, role captivity, loss of self, overload, expressive support in caregiving.

2. Retrospective time budget.

3. Exit interview questions

No

 37

Duff P et al. [75]

2007

Ireland, England, Finland, Lithuania Norway

127

(Gender not reported)

Incomplete = 47

Not reported

Before and After Survey

Calendar, Lamp, Gas cooker monitor, locator, picture telephone, medicine reminder

1. Usefulness.

2. Levels of satisfaction.

3. Recommend device to a friend.

4. Willing to pay for device.

5. Carer wellbeing score

1-4 = No.

5 = Yes

 38

Rialle V et al. [76]

2008

France

350 – Spouses + Siblings + Relatives + Other

(89 men; 181 women)

Incomplete = 80

54–98

Cluster sample survey

Smart home technologies - fall sensor; oral call identification; video surveillance; tracking device; robot care; video conferencing

1. Questionnaire in three sections

a. general information;

b. Current skills and practice and viewpoints on specific technologies;

c. Economical effort and support. (not at all, little, moderately, very much).

Included ‘mini’ Zarit score

No

 39

Landau R et al. [77]

2009

Germany and Israel

69 – Spouses + Sons + Daughters + Other family members

(16 men; 53 women)

Not reported

Survey

GPS tracking device

1. Attitude towards use of electronic tracking questionnaire - 31 items on 4-point Likert scale from do not agree at all to very much agree.

2. Who should make decisions regarding use of GPS device - 4-point Likert scale.

3. Six Items adapted from Quebec User Evaluation of Satisfaction with Assistive Technology scale

No

 40

Chen Y-C et al. [78]

2012

Taiwan

3 – Spouses

(1 man; 2 women)

28–86

Survey

Electronic GPS

1. Lost seeking devices used.

2. Wandering behaviour.

3. Functions in lost seeking devices.

4. Faults in lost seeking devices.

5. Importance of the information

6. importance of purchase consideration.

No

 41

Alwin J et al. [79]

2013

Sweden

47 – Spouses + Children

(16 men; 31 women)

46–77

Survey

Easy-to-use telephones, door alarms, alarms and emergency transmitters

1. Carers of Older People in Europe (COPE index).

2. Patient perspective on Care and Rehabilitation process instrument (POCR).

3. How do you value the significance of the intervention? (1 = of no significance, 5 = of greatest possible significance)

1 = published. 2 = Published but modified for this study.

3 = No

 42

Lim F S et al. [80]

2013

Australia

24 – Family + Friend

(3 men; 21 women)

Dropouts = 3

34–85

Before, during and after survey

iPad

1. Previous experience of use of technology.

2. PwD using device independently.

3. Carer’s perspectives on usefulness of the device.

No

 43

McKenzie B et al. [81]

2013

USA

60

(7 men; 53 women)

incomplete = 1

Not reported

Before and after survey

Motion sensor with remote alarm, wireless camera with handheld liquid crystal display night vision, proximity range alarm, wireless home security system, medication organiser, locating technologies, bed occupancy sensor, touchpad key locks, window alerts, water detector alert

1. Safety assessment Scale.

2. Caregiver Vigilance Scale.

3. Peace of Mind scale.

4. Sleep Disorders inventory

Yes

 44

Schulz R et al. [39]

2016

USA

512 – Spouses + Sons +Daughters + Other family members + Friends

(251 men; 261 women)

Incomplete = 75

18–64

Survey

Emergency response system; sensors;

1. General technology attitudes −10-point scale.

No

 45

Kamimura T [82]

2017

Japan

5 – Spouse + Daughter + Daughter-in-law

(Gender not reported)

52–65

Survey

Automatic Medication Dispenser

1. Carer Burden (1 = no burden; 2 = little burden; 3 = mild burden; 4 = moderate to severe burden).

No

 46

Korchut A et al. [83]

2017

Poland Spain

81-

(26 men; 54 women)

incomplete = 1

Not reported

Survey

Robotic assistants

1. Social acceptance.

2. human-robot interaction

No

 47

Megges H et al. [84]

2017

Germany

18 – Spouses + daughters

(10 men; 8 women)

Dropout = 1

41–78

Before and after survey

Mobile locating system with GPS

1. Zarit burden interview.

2. General self-efficacy scale.

3. User diary.

4. How satisfied they were with the prototype (1 = not at all satisfied to 4 = very satisfied)

1,2 = Yes.

3,4 = No

No

Authors

Date

Country

Participants

Age range

Study Design

Assistive Technology

Measures

Validated measures

 48

Topo P et al. [85]

2007

Lithuania

Norway

Ireland

United Kingdom

Finland

50 - Spouses + Children + Grandchildren + Friends.

(4 men; 21 women).

Incomplete = 25

29–84

1. Burden of care questionnaire

2. Interviews

Night and Day Calendar

1. The need for care and treatment.

2. Use of services and quality of life.

3. Greene’s Relative Stress Scale

1,2 = No.

3 = Published

 49

Meiland F et al. [86]

2012

Netherlands

Ireland

Sweden

41 – Spouses + Children

(25 men; 16 women)

23–79

Pre test-Post test Questionnaires

2. Semi-structured interviews.

3. Diary.

4. Observations

COGKNOW Day Navigator (CDN) - touchscreen, mobile device, home based sensors, actuators

1. Short Sense of Competence Questionnaire.

2. One question regarding overall judgement on QoL of the carer

1 = Yes.

2 = No.

 50

Nijhof N et al. [87]

2013

Netherlands

16 – Spouses + Sons + Daughters

(6 men, 10 women)

35–79

1. Log file of system use.

2. Interviews

PAL4 BV - Agenda for the day, diary, two-way video contact, memory games to play, Music and movies, information on dementia and the village they live in

1. Log files - number of clicks and buttons pressed on the touch screen.

2. interviews on uptake and impact with carers

No

 51

Mehrabian S et al. [88]

2014

France

30 – Spouses + Children

(10 men; 20 women)

54–74

1. Survey

2. Semi-structured interviews.

Telecare system - sensors, videoconferencing, detecting emergencies, cognitive stimulation exercises. Medicines and task reminders

1. Questionnaire on use and usefulness.

2. Interview questions

No

 52

Lewis V et al. [89]

2015

Australia

59 – Spouses + Others

(16 men; 35 women). Incomplete = 8

30–70

1. Pre test-Post test self-report questionnaire.

2. Diary.

3. Semi-structured phone interviews.

MP3 player

1. Kessler-10 measure of psychological distress −1 = none of the time to 5 = all of the time.

2. General health question-one item.

3. Life satisfaction questions - 1 = very dissatisfied to 11 = very satisfied.

4. Family caregiver self-efficacy scale - 1 = not at all certain to 10 = very certain.

5. Caregiving and stress measure.

6. Self-care and healthy behaviours.

Yes

 53

Hattink B J et al. [90]

2016

Germany

Netherlands

Belgium

17/15 [Experiemental/Control] – Spouses + Children + Other

(7/6 men; 10/8 women)

Dropouts = 9/9

29–85

1. Pre test-Post test control group design with matched groups (Netherlands, Belgium). Randomised Controlled Trial (Germany).

2. Focus Groups

Integrated Rosetta system: Elderly Day Navigator + The early Detection System + Unattended autonomous surveillance system

1. Usefulness and user-friendliness. 2. Short sense of competence questionnaire.

1 = No.

2 = yes

 54

Navarro R F et al. [91]

2016

Mexico

3 – Spouses + Daughter

(3 women)

43–66

1. Questionnaires

2. Diary.

3. interviews

Assisted cognition system - touchscreen reminders for the day, current date and time, tracking

1. Caregiver burden - Zarit Burden Interview. 2. Caregiver self-efficacy - revised Scale for caregiving Self-Efficacy

Yes

 55

Liu L et al. [92]

2017

Canada

46 - Spouses + Children + Friend + Daughter-in-law

(11 men; 35 women)

41–71

1. Pre test-Post test questionnaires2. Focus groups

GPS

1. Questionnaire - 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree.

2. Zarit Burden Scale. 3. Focus groups.

No

 56

Tyack C et al. [42]

2017

England

12

(2 men, 10 women)

48–77

1. Quasi-experimental repeated measures. Questionnaire.

2. Semi-structured interviews

Tablet Computer

1. Quality of Life - Alzheimer’s Disease (QoL-AD) scale.

2. Semi-structured interviews

Yes

Thematic analysis