First author and year | Study design | Intervention and Technology | Control | Technology description | Sessions/Duration | Follow-up | Cognitive outcome measures | Other outcome measures | Key findings |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cipriani, 2006 [29] | Pre-post study | Computer based-Cognitive Rehabilitation (cb-CR) programs | NA | TNP software: delivers individualized cognitive rehabilitation exercises in the following cognitive domains: attention, memory, perception, visuospatial cognition, language, and non-verbal intelligence | 2 * 16 * 13–45 min sessions for 8 weeks | 3 months | MMSE Attention: Visual search; Executive function: Trail Making test A and B; Behavioral Memory: RBMT; Psychomotor learning: digit symbol test; Verbal fluency: phonemic and semantic verbal fluency | Depression (GDS); Anxiety: STAI-X1, STAI-X2; ADL: AADL; QOL: SF-12 | MCI: Only significantly improved in memory (RBMT) |
Rozzini, 2007 [40] | RCT | TNP + ChEIs | CG1: ChEIs CG2: No treatment | TNP Software | 20 * 1 h/session, five days/week for four weeks | 1 yr | MMSE Memory: Short story recall; Executive function: Rey’s figure copy and recall, Raven’s colored matrices; Verbal fluency: Letter verbal fluency, Semantic verbal fluency | Mood: depression: GDS; anxiety, apathy Behavioral disturbances: NPI Activities of daily living: BADL | IG: significant improvement in memory, abstract reasoning, and depression CG1: no improvements on any cognition but benefit in depression CG2: no improvement in any outcome measures |
Talassi, 2007 [36] | CCT | TNP + OT + BT | PR + OT + BT | TNP Software | 30–45 min/session, 4 days/week for 3 weeks | Interven-tion end | MMSE Working memory: forward and backward digit span; Executive function: Rey’s figure copy; Verbal fluency: phonemic and semantic verbal fluency; CDT; Episodic Memory: episodic memory subset of RBMT; Verbal fluency: Phonemic and semantic verbal fluency; Attention: visual search, processing speed: digit symbol test | Mood: depression GDS; anxiety (Stai-Y1,Stai-Y2; ADL: BADL, IADL, PPT; | MCI subjects in IG improved in executive function, visuospatial memory, anxiety, depression, and PPT but not IADL MCI subjects in CG: no improvements |
Barnes, 2009 [22] | RCT | cb-CT | Passive computer activities | Computer-based cognitive training software developed by Posit Science Corporation (San Francisco, CA), involving seven exercises including primary and working auditory memory tasks to improve processing speed and accuracy in the auditory cortex | IG: 100 min/day five days/week for 6 weeks CG: 90 min/day, 5 days/week for 6 weeks | Interven-tion end | Global cognitive function: RBANS total score, 5 RBANS index score Memory: CVLT-II Language: COWAT, BNT Executive function: California Trail Making Test Attention: Design Fluency test; Working memory: Spatial Span test | Mood: depression (GDS) | IG showed greater improvement on RBANS total scores but no significant between group difference. Effect sizes for verbal learning and memory measures tended to favor IG. Effect sizes for language and visuospatial function measures tended to favor CG (control group). |
Finn, 2011 [25] | RCT | Computerized Cognitive Training Package | No intervention | Lumosity software on a computer contains four or five cognitive exercise that targeted four cognitive domains | 30 sessions, 4–5 sessions/week | Interven-tion end | Executive function: IED; Attention: RVP Subjective memory impairment: MFQ Visual memory: PAL | Mood: Depression Anxiety and Stress Scale | IG had significant improvement in visual attention but not processing speed, visual memory, nor mood |
Rosen, 2011 [23] | RCT | cb-CT | listening to audio books, reading online newspapers, and playing a visuospatial oriented computer game | Computer-based cognitive training software developed by Posit Science Corporation | IG: 24 sessions, 100 mins/day, 5 days/week CG:24 sessions, 90 min/day, 5 days/week | Interven-tion end | Global cognitive function: RBANS Neuroimaging: fMRI | Not specified | IG > CG: improvement in verbal memory and left hippocampal activation CG: declined in VM |
Gagnon, 2012 [43] | RCT | Computer-based VP | AC: Computer-based FP | Computer-based divided attention dual-task training: VP: performing both tasks concurrently and varying allocation priorities across the series of blocks, feedbacks are provided; FP: perform both tasks concurrently and to allocate 50/50 attentional resources to each task, no feedbacks provided | 6 * 1 h/session, 3 times/week for two weeks | Interven-tion end | Attention: dual task (digit span task, visual detection task); Executive subtest of TEA Attention: Trail Making Test A; Executive function: Trail Making Test B; | QOL: Well-Being Scale Divided attention: Divided Attention Questionnaire | VP showed significant advantage over FP in improving accuracy and reaction time FP and VP both produced improvements on focused attention, speed of processing, and switching abilities No reliable advantage for VP over FP |
Herrera, 2012 [42] | RCT | Computer –based Memory and attention training | Stimulating Cognitive activities | Computer-based cognitive training that involved a memory task and an attention task | 24 * 60 min/session twice/week for 12 weeks. | 6 months | MMSE-recall; Memory: the forward and backward digit span test, BEM-144 12-word-list recall, the 16-item free and cued reminding test, subscore recall of the MMSE, visual recognition subtest from the Doors and People memory battery, the DMS48 test; executive function: Rey–Osterrieth Complex Figure recall test | N/A | Significant improvement in memory, both episodic recall and recognition |
Man, 2012 [13] | CCT | VR-based memory training program | Therapist-led program | VR: participants use either the joystick or the direction buttons of the keyboard to control the navigation action and give responses to a memory task | 10 sessions, 30 min/session 2–3 times/week | Interven-tion end | Memory: MMQ; Episodic Memory: FOME | ADL: Lawton IADL | VR: significant improvement in total encoding, total recall, delayed recall and MMQ-strategy Therapist-led: significant improvement in total recall, delayed recall and MMQ-contentment VR > therapist in improving objective memory; Therapist > VR in subjective memory |
Gonzalez-Palau, 2014 [33] | Pre-post study | LLM included CTC and PTC | NA | CTC: Gradior Software: a multi-domain cognitive training program including attention, perception, episodic memory and working memory tasks. Principles of feedback and difficulty adaptation are used PTC: FFA: an innovative, low-cost game platform. Work our intensity gradually increases | CTC: 40/session, three times/week for 12 weeks PTC: one-hour session of FFA, three times/week for 12 weeks | Interven-tion end | Global cognitive function: The Mini Examen Cognitivo (MEC 35) Memory: Logical Memory subtests of the WMS III Attention: The Color Trail Test 1 and 2 Verbal learning and memory: HVLT-R | Mood: depression(GDS) | For MCI subjects: Significant improvement in global cognitive function, verbal memory,episodic memory, and decrease in symptoms of depression. |
Han, 2014 [30] | Pre-post study | Ubiquitous Spaced Retrieval-based Memory Advancement and Rehabilitation Training USMART Program | NA | USMART program app on IPad | 24 face-to-face sessions | Interven-tion end | CERAD-K-N including: verbal fluency: the Categorical Fluency test, the Modified BNT; MMSE; memory: WLMT, WLRT, the Word List Recognition Test, CRT; visuospatial: Constructional Praxis Test; Attention: Trail Making Test A; executive function: Trail Making Test B | N/A | Significantly improved only in memory (WLMT); number of training sessions correlated with WLMT scores |
Hughes, 2014 [45] | RCT | Interactive video games (Wii) | Healthy aging education program | Nintendo Wii gaming console for interactive video gaming (bowling, golf, tennis, and baseball) | 24 * 90 min, 1 session/week for 24 weeks | 1 year | Global cognition: CAMCI; Processing speed/ Attention: Tracking A; Executive function: Tracking B; Subjective cognitive ability | Mood/social functioning: CSRQ-25; ADL: TIADL | IG: No significant improvement in any of the outcome measures. Medium effect size estimates were found for global cognition, subjective cognition, executive function, and gait speed |
Fiatarone Singh, 2014 [26] | RCT | IG1: CT + Sham exercise IG2: PRT + Sham cognitive intervention IG3: CT + PRT | Sham exercise + Sham cognitive intervention | COGPACK program: computer-based multimodal and multi-domain exercises targeting memory, executive function, attention, and speed of information processing, including 14 progressively more difficult exercises | CG: 60 min IG: 75 min PRT/CT groups, 100 min combined 2–3 days/week for 6 months | 18 months | Global cognition: ADAS-Cog Executive Function: WAIS-III; Verbal fluency: COWAT, animal naming; Memory: BVRT-R, auditory Logical Memory I and II, subsets of WMS-III, List Learning subsection of ADAS-Cog; Attention: SDMT | ADL: B-IADL | CT prevented memory decline only up until 6 months PRT improved global and executive function until 18 months; PRT was better than CT + PRT in improving global and executive function |
Manera, 2015 [32] | Pre-post Study | ‘Kitchen and Cooking’ Game | NA | Computerized Kitchen and Cooking’ serious game which challenges attention, executive function, and praxis | 4 weeks | Interven-tion end | Attention: Trail Making Test A Visual Memory: the Visual Association Test Executive function: the Victoria Stroop Test | ADL: IADL, ADL | Significant improvement in executive function. Improvement in MCI > AD. Longer time played correlated with better executive function |
Styliadis, 2015 [34] | CCT | IG1: Long-Lasting Memories (LLM) Intervention: combined cognitive training (CT) and physical training (PT) IG2: CT alone IG3: PT alone | CG1: Active Control (AC) (documentaries viewing) CG2: Passive Control | LLM training system CT and PT as follows: CT: Greek adaptation of Brain Fitness Software: 6 self-paced exercises focused on categories: Attention and Auditory Processing Speed. PT: FFA game platform incorporating Nintendo WII balance games | 8 weeks LLM group: Up to 10 h/week PT group: Up to 5 h/week CT group: Up to 5 h/week AC group: Up to 5 h/week | Interven-tion end | Electroencephalogram (EEG) measures of Cortical activity for delta, theta, beta 1 and beta 2 bands | N/A | A significant training effect was identified in the LLM group revealed by EEG measures but no training effects on the MMSE |
Barban, 2016 [39] | RCT | Process-based-Cognitive Training (pb-CT) plus reminiscence therapy (RT) + rest | Reminiscence therapy (RT) + pb-CT | SOCIABLE software on a touch screen computer containing 27 games designed to improve function in 7 cognitive domains: attention, executive function, memory, logical reasoning, orientation, language, and constructional Praxis | 24 * 1 h treatment sessions, 2 sessions/week for a about 3 months | Interven-tion end | MMSE Memory: RAVLT; Executive function: Rey–Osterreith Complex Figure Test, Phonological Verbal Fluency Test; Executive function: Trail Making Test | IADL | pb-CT: Significant training effects on memory in MCI subjects and the effect was maintained after reminiscence period; Significant training effect on MMSE was not maintained during reminiscence period; Medium effect sizes |
Gooding, 2016 [35] | CCT | IG1: Computer based Cognitive Training (cb-CT) IG2: Cognitive Vitality Training (CVT: cb-CT + Neuropsychological and Educational Approach to Remediation (NEAR) | Active Control Group (ACG) | cb-CT: Brain Fitness: repeated drill-and-practice exercises involving memory, attention, and executive functions within domain-specific training modules that allow for adaptive training with titrated difficulty levels. Same CT exercises delivered within a framework that allows for personalization, individual control, and contextualization of exercises | 30 * 60 min/session, twice/week for 16 weeks | 4 months | Intellectual functioning: WRAT-3; mMMSE; Verbal learning and Memory: the BSRT, the WMS-R LM I and II subtests Visual learning and memory: the WMS-R Visual Reproductions (VR) I and II subtests | Mood: depression (BDI-II) | CVT and cb-CT groups had improvements in global cognition, verbal learning, and verbal memory; CVT and cb-CT had significantly greater improvements than ACG in global cognition, verbal memory, and verbal learning; No significant difference between cb-CT and CVT; Largest mood improvement in CVT, significant difference between CVT and ACG but not between CVT and cb-CT |
Hyer, 2016 [28] | RCT | Computerized CT program | Sham cognitive training | Cogmed computer training program: Uses multiple rotating exercises daily that are designed to train working memory. | 25 * 40 min /day for over 5 to 7 weeks | 3 months | Working Memory: WMS-III Span Board subtest, WAIS-III Letter Number Sequencing subtest; Attention: Trail Making Test Part A; Executive function: Trail Making Test Part B); Subjective memory: CFQ | ADL: the Functional Activities Questionnaire | Significant improvement of executive function, verbal and non-verbal working memory in both CG and IG; Significant improvement of subjective memory in IG but not CG. Significant between group difference in working memory (Span Board) and in adjustment (FAQ) |
Klados, 2016 [37] | CCT | Long Lasting Memories (LLM) Intervention (Cognitive Training (CT) + Physical Training (PT)) | Active Control (AC): watching documentary and answering questionnaire | Brain Fitness Software FitForAll | CT: 1 h/day, 3–5 days/week for 8 weeks PT: 1 h/day, 3–5 sessions/week for 8 weeks for 8 weeks | Interven-tion end | Cortical Activity, Cortical Functional Connectivity: beta band | Not specified | IG showed beta band functional connectivity of MCI patients |
Lin, 2016 [44] | RCT | VSOP | MLA | Software INSIGHT: online program designed by Posit Science, included five training tasks: eye for detail, peripheral challenge, visual sweeps, double decision, and target tracker | 1 h/day 4 days/week for 6 weeks | Interven-tion end | Processing speed: The Useful Field of View Executive function: The EXAMINER | ADL: TIADL Neuroimaging data: magnetic resonance imaging | IG > CG: improvement in trained (processing speed and attention) and untrained (working memory) cognitive domains, IADL, CEN and DMN |
Vermeij, 2016 [31] | Pre-post study | WM training program | NA | Cogmed computer program | 25 sessions, 45 min per session for 5 weeks | 3 months | Working memory: WAIS-III Digit Span forward and backward, WMS-III Spatial Span forward and backward; Verbal memory: Dutch equivalent of RAVLT; Figural Fluency: RFFT; Cognitive impairment: CFQ | N/A | IG: Significant improvement in trained verbal and visuospatial working memory tasks as well as executive function. Training gain was larger in the healthy elderly (HE) and was only maintained among HEs. Improvements in non-trained near-transfer tasks, maintained after 3 months follow-up |
Bahar-Fuchs, 2017 [27] | RCT | home-based individually-tailored and adaptive cb-CT | AC | CogniFit Software: a computer-based program involving 33 tasks designed to train a broad range of cognitive abilities | 2 sessions/day, 3 days/week, for 8–12 weeks | 12 weeks | Composite score global cognition Memory: L’Hermitte Board, Logical Memory, RAVLT Verbal fluency: SydBat Processing speed: the Trails A and B tasks Self-reported cognitive function | Mood | MCI in IG: greater improvement in memory, learning, and global cognition. No training effect in mood, self-reported memory Training gains in MCI (including ADL) were consolidated over time large effect sizes of intervention at the follow-up assessments in learning, delayed memory, and global cognitive function, medium effect size in non-memory composite |
Delbroek, 2017 [47] | RCT | VR dual task training with the BioRescue | No intervention | BioRescue Software: nine exercises to train balance, weight bearing, memory, attention and dual tasking. Led by a therapist, participants stand on a platform, adjustable difficulties based on performances | Gradually increased from 18 min in week 1 to 30 min in week 5 | Interven-tion end | The Dutch version of MoCA | Motivation: The Dutch version of IMI emotions: OERS | IG significantly improved on balance, but not on global cognitive function or cognitive-motor dual tasking or gait performance |
Hagovská, 2017 [12] | RCT | Cb-CT | Classical group-based cognitive training | CogniPlus program: on a computer, includes five sub-programs that involved activities that are similar to everyday activities, targets attention, working memory, long-term memory, planning of everyday activities, and visual-motor abilities. | 20 *30 min, 2 sessions/week for 10 weeks | 10 weeks | Self-reported functional activities: FAQ Global cognition: ACE Attention: The Stroop Test | QOL: Spitzer QOL index Functional activities: The Functional Activities Questionnaire | IG demonstrated larger improvements in QoL and attention than CG. The transfer to functional activities was the same between groups |
Mansbach, 2017 [38] | CCT | cb-CR | No intervention | Memory Match online cognitive rehabilitation module: designed to improve attention and visual memory, requires the participant to visually pair “matching pictures” by remembering their location | 9*30 min/session | Interven-tion end | Global cognitive functioning: BCAT AD8 Dementia Screening Interview, KPT | Attitudes about their cognitive abilities: SRI Mood: depression: GDS-SF | IG > CG in global cognition at post-intervention assessment |
Savulich, 2017 [41] | RCT | CT | No intervention | Game Show on iPad: a novel learning and memory game, target to improve episodic memory | 8 sessions, 1 h/session | Interven-tion end for 4 weeks | MMSE; Episodic memory and new learning: CANTAB PAL; Visual/spatial abilities: BVMT-R; Processing speed: CANTAB CRT | GDS-SF Anxiety and depression: HADS; Apathy: AES | IG > CG: significantly better performance in episodic memory, visuospatial abilities, MMSE, and less apathy |